Desired Circuit Research Articles

Analog RF Circuit Sizing by a Cascade of Shallow Neural Networks

A deep neural network architecture for the automatic sizing of analog circuit components is proposed, with a focus on radio frequency (RF) applications in the 2 to 5 GHz region. It addresses the challenges of the typically small number of examples for network training and the existence of multiple solutions, of which impractical values for integrated circuit implementation. We address these issues by restricting the learning to one component size at a time, thanks to a cascade of dedicated shallow neural networks (SNN), where each network constrains the prediction of the next ones. Moreover, the SNNs are individually tuned by a genetic algorithm for the prediction order and accuracy. This reduction of the solution space at each step allows the use of small training sets, and the introduced constraints between SNNs handle component interdependencies. The method is successfully validated on three different types of RF microcircuits: a low-noise amplifier (LNA), a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), and a mixer, using 180 nm and 130 nm CMOS implementations. All the predictions were within 5 % of the true values, both at the component and performance levels, and all the responses were obtained in less than 5 s, after 4 to 47 min. training on a regular PC station. The obtained results show that the proposed method is fast and applicable to arbitrary analog circuit topologies, with no need to retrain the developed neural network for each new set of desired circuit performances.

Sequential Laser-Burned Lignin and Hydrogen Evolution-Assisted Copper Electrodeposition to Manufacture Wearable Electronics.

In the contemporary world, wearable electronics and smart textiles/fabrics are galvanizing a transformation of the health care, aerospace, military, and commercial industries. However, a major challenge that exists is the manufacture of electronic circuits directly on fabrics. In this work, we addressed the issue by developing a sequential manufacturing process. First, the target fabric was coated with a customized ink containing lignin. Next, a desired circuit layout was patterned by laser burning lignin, converting it to carbon and establishing a conductive template on the fabric. At last, using an in-house-designed printer, a devised localized hydrogen evolution-assisted (HEA) copper electroplating method was applied to metalize the surface of the laser-burned lignin pattern to achieve a very low resistive circuit layout (0.103 Ω for a 1 cm long interconnect). The nanostructure and material composition of the different layers were investigated via scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Monitoring the conductivity change before and after bending, rolling, stretching, washing, and adhesion tests presented remarkable mechanical stability due to the entanglement of the copper nanostructure to the fibers of the fabric. Furthermore, the HEA method was used to solder a light-emitting diode to a patterned circuit on the fabric by growing copper at the terminals, creating interconnects. The presented sequential printing method has the potential for fabricating reliable wearable electronics for various applications, particularly in medical monitoring.

Spoiled History: Leprosy and the Lessons of Queer Medieval Historiography

Abstract White supremacists fetishize the crusading knight; queer theorists claim an identification with the generative secret of the premodern sodomite. This essay attends to the epistemological circuits of transhistorical identification, examining the claims of recursive history and the theories of attachment betrayed by identification with the medieval past. Turning away from the solicitations of the crusader and the sodomite, the essay excavates histories of emotional attachment to the leper, a medieval figure whose status as abject incarnation of historical distance helps reconfigure transhistoric emotional identification. In medieval texts, the leper's ruined face scripts styles of recognition. In the medical writings of nineteenth-century imperial physicians, the medieval leper is used in negotiating fears of disease outbreaks in various colonies. The leper therefore comes to assume the status of reassuring historical distance as a result of imperial ideological needs. Attention to the circuits of desire that animate claims to the past on the basis of identification and personal attachment can account for the attraction the Middle Ages exerts on both medievalists and white supremacists.

A Possible Reward Prediction Error Circuit Exists in Brain: AroundPrefrontal Cortex and Ventral Tegmental Area

This work aims to find a potential neuronal circuit from the Prefrontal cortex to the ventral tegmental area. In neurology,previous research focuses on how signal transfers from the ventral tegmental area to the Prefrontal cortex. Theoretically,the Prefrontal cortex is an effector and a processor. Therefore, a possible circuit, using the Prefrontal cortex as thedeparture, could be designed to find. This work is designed to employ some techniques, floxed genes, neuronal virustracing, and an electrical detector in the brain to prove the desired circuit and give some prediction results. Thoseresults will prove whether the neuronal circuit existed or not. If the electrical signals from the PFC region to VTA canbe detected in termination, such a desired circuit is possible. This work may help to complete the learning mechanism,reward prediction error system, physiologically.

On the Evolutionary Synthesis of Fault-Resilient Digital Circuits

In the event of an upset, fault-resilient circuits maintain correct functionality allowing the system to remain fully operational or at least operate with a graceful degradation. Every circuit has a certain level of inherent resilience to faults. Often times, this inherent resilience to faults is insufficient for the given application. This is because conventional synthesis tools generally only focus on optimizing a circuit with respect to area, power, or timing budgets. There is a wide range of applications where faulty circuit behavior can lead to fatal results. Fault injection analyses are reported and show that even a single fault can be critical to the desired circuit operation. To which end, this article presents synthesis of fault-resilient (SYFR) circuits, an evolutionary method for automated synthesis of increased fault-resilience digital circuits suitable for fine-grained use. Test results for synthesis of up to 60 input circuits with SYFR are reported. SYFR can be repeatedly applied to a circuit to obtain various design tradeoffs between fault resilience and implementation costs. SYFR can also be flexibly applied to build circuits, which are selectively fault resilient, i.e., their tolerance to faults is workload aware. In addition, a novel population seeding mechanism to reduce the design space is introduced and experimentally validated. In summary, this article demonstrates that SYFR can be considered a competitive synthesis methodology for constructing fault-resilient circuits.

Methodology for Automated Design of Quantum-Dot Cellular Automata Circuits

Quantum-dot Cellular Automata (QCA) provide very high scale integration potential, very high switching frequency, and have extremely low power demands, which make the QCA technology quite attractive for the design and implementation of large-scale, high-performance nanoelectronic circuits. However, state-of-the-art QCA circuit designs were not derived by following a set of universal design rules, as is the case of CMOS circuits, and, as a result, it is either impossible or very difficult to combine QCA circuit blocks in effective large-scale circuits. In this paper, we introduce a novel automated design methodology, which builds upon a QCA specific universal design rules set. The proposed methodology assumes the availability of a generic QCA crossbar architecture and provides the means to customize it in order to implement any given logic function. The programming principles and the flow of the proposed automated design tool for crossbar QCA circuits are described analytically and we apply the proposed automated design method for the design of both combinatorial and sequential circuits. The obtained designs demonstrate that the proposed method is functional, easy to use, and provides the desired QCA circuit design unification.

Queering the Enlightenment: Kinship and Gender in Eighteenth-Century French Literature by Tracy L. Rutler

Reviewed by: Queering the Enlightenment: Kinship and Gender in Eighteenth-Century French Literature by Tracy L. Rutler Antoinette Sol Tracy L. Rutler. Queering the Enlightenment: Kinship and Gender in Eighteenth-Century French Literature. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, coll. Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment, 2021. Pp. xxi + 291. Price $99.99. In Queering the Enlightenment, Tracy Rutler examines the "ailing state of the patriarchy" in novels and plays during the 1730s and 1740s by analyzing alternative systems of filiation and kinship played out in the narratives. These alternative systems reflect contemporary anxiety about the state of the monarchy and challenge the patriarchy. Combining psychoanalysis and structuralism with political theory, Rutler offers a different way to read canonical eighteenth-century texts by focusing on narrative substitutions for heteronormative familial relations. The interpretations of the texts are not necessarily new ones, but the journey to get to them is. By "reading queerly" new significations are teased out. Reading queerly means "seizing [the] disjunctions between the part (the subject) and the whole (the Order) by paying particular attention to the fruitful fracture between and within narration and language" (21). Rutler shows how Voltaire, Prévost, Crébillon fils, Marivaux, and Graffigny offer new paradigms of subjectivity and re-vision social organization by taking familiar heteronormative relations and rendering them unfamiliar. Importantly, Rutler shows how relevant the creation of alternative intimate communities in eighteenth-century texts is to our time. The introduction ably reviews the political and social situation in the wake of the death of Louis XIV and the theoretical framework that grounds Rutler's reading. Chapter one, "Towards [End Page 178] a Queer Politics of Kinship," finds value in a reconfigured familial space in Voltaire's Candide as a "thrown-together community of […] misfits "built upon a politics of collective action" (40), one that frustrates genre expectations and challenges the notion of family not organized around heterosexual reproduction. In the second chapter, "Oedipus interrupted: Prévost's Regime of the Brother," asks what difference the absence of women characters makes in the transfer of masculine power and in circuits of male desire. In chapter three, "Wandering Souls: The World of Cré-billon, fils" Rutler applies notions of "cruising" to the work of Crébillon fils and discusses how his characters refuse the "forward motion through time implied by heterosexual marriage and its goal of reproduction" (153) and where cruising "creates an astonishing egalitarian form of human and (nonhuman) relationality" (162). If the previous chapters explored formations of masculine subjectivity and circulation of desire, chapter four, "Origin Stories: Maternal Enlightenment in Marivaux," looks at the very different female subject formation through a compelling discussion of the maternal symbolic. Rutler reads Marivaux's La vie de Marianne and three of his plays as an exploration of various permutations and failures of the family romance. Reading for "political construction of female subjectivity" (184) reveals freely chosen and created female alternatives to the patriarchal traditional family. Chapter five, "Knotty Relations: Graffigny's Regime of the Sister," continues the discussion of female subjectivity and calls for a reevaluation of Graffigny's legacy. Rutler concludes her study by emphasizing that the texts studied "attempt to represent the emergence of alternative kinship structures […] characterized by forms of relation that exceed and undermine both patriarchy and heteronormativity" (272). This study is a fascinating and valuable contribution to the field. [End Page 179] Antoinette Sol University of Texas at Arlington Copyright © 2023 L'Esprit Créateur

Modified Numerical Inversion of Laplace Transform Methods for the Time-Domain Analysis of Retarded Partial Elements Equivalent Circuit Models

This article presents a new method for the simulation of the retarded partial element equivalent circuit (PEEC), which is used to model the EM phenomena at the circuit level. The new method adapts a recently introduced approach for numerical inversion of the Laplace transform (NILT). The conventional NILT approach is equivalent to a high-order stable differential equation solver. Its application in the context of PEEC circuits eliminated late-time instability issues. However, the recent development in NILT (known as NILT <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">n</i> ) further reduced the approximation error by several orders of magnitude for roughly the same computational cost as in the conventional NILT, thereby permitting a significant increase in the length of the time step with lower computational cost. The approach proposed in this article further develops the ideas in NILT <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">n</i> so that it can be applied to the simulation of PEEC circuits in the time-domain. The new approach, therefore, combines the desirable late-time stability of NILT with a reduced computational cost. Furthermore, this article also utilizes an interpolation approach to reproduce the desired circuit waveforms between the points evaluated by NILT <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">n</i> .

Circulating desire: queer logistical aesthetics

ABSTRACT In The Deadly Life of Logistics (2014), Deborah Cowen asks what a queer engagement with logistics space might look like. In the years following this publication, there has been an increase in interest in critical approaches to logistics, infrastructure, and supply chains, yet hardly any of this work has been taken up in queer scholarship. This article offers an analysis of Netflix’s Sense8 (2015–2018), arguing that the series be read as a queer engagement with logistics, offering what I term a “queer logistical aesthetic.” I argue that the series seemingly responds to Cowen’s call for alternative inhabitations of networked logistics, fantasizing that the network imaginary of global supply chain capitalism might be inhabited differently, as a queer circuit of desire. Yet, as much as Sense8 seems to produce a queer logistical aesthetic, one that re-imagines supply chain capitalism, this aesthetic, in the end, remains in a complicated and ambivalent tangle with the present-day logistics that enables it. Via this reading of Sense8, this article contributes to bringing queer theory and contemporary queer aesthetics into closer conversation with late capitalist logistics discourse.

On Pharmacology and Multistability: a Commentary on Marco Pavanini

This is a commentary piece on Marco Pavanini's article ' ‘Multistability and Derrida’s Différance: Investigating the Relations Between Postphenomenology and Stiegler’s General Organology' in which I critically extend upon his comparative analysis of postphenomenology''s notion of multistability and Stiegler's conception of organology, focusing in particular on the pharmacological nature of Stiegler's organology and the latter's most recent re-interpretation of it in terms of entropy and negentropy. Among other things I show, and both are more intended as additions than criticisms with respect to Pavanini’s very helpful comparison, (1) that the most important concern for Stiegler in theorizing technology is the fact that the transductive relations between the three organ systems distinguished in his pharmaco-organology of technology open up affective or libidinal circuits between these systems, i.e., circuits either of desire or drive depending on the way the pharmakon is adopted or not, and that these circuits are fundamentally noetic circuits vulnerable to denoetization; and (2) that these libidinal-noetic circuits as conditioned by technology should be interpreted in terms of entropy and negentropy. Both insights are lacking in postphenomenology, which generally fails to consider the irreducibly destitutive character of all technology, rightfully emphasized by Pavanini, since it lacks a genuine pharmacological awareness.

Impact of optogenetic pulse design on CA3 learning and replay: A neural model

SummaryOptogenetic manipulation of hippocampal circuitry is an important tool for investigating learning in vivo. Numerous approaches to pulse design have been employed to elicit desirable circuit and behavioral outcomes. Here, we systematically test the outcome of different single-pulse waveforms in a rate-based model of hippocampal memory function at the level of mnemonic replay extension and de novo synaptic weight formation in CA3 and CA1. Lower-power waveforms with long forward or forward and backward ramps yield more natural sequence replay dynamics and induce synaptic plasticity that allows for more natural memory replay timing, in contrast to square or backward ramps. These differences between waveform shape and amplitude are preserved with the addition of noise in membrane potential, light scattering, and protein expression, improving the potential validity of predictions for in vivo work. These results inform future optogenetic experimental design choices in the field of learning and memory.

RANCANG BANGUN SABLON JALUR LAYOUT PCB OTOMATIS BERBASIS PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL (PLC)

Advances technology in life is also accompanied by innovations from various automation processes, a strong reason that encourages the formation of this PLC-Based Automatic PCB Path Screen Printing tool, starting from students printing PCB by ironing the circuit design results on the PCB, which takes time long enough. At this step, many people experience problems, including the paths on the PCB etching results are broken due to the uneven ironing of the printed results. As a result, the circuit does not work as intended. Therefore, a PCB etching machine is needed that can work automatically. It can produce the desired circuit results in a shorter and better time, The way this PCB screen printing machine works, is to use a Heater (heat element), which is then controlled by the Thermo Controller, and programmed by the PLC, and pushes and pressing using air pressure (pneumatic) which is then determined by the Timer, During the specified time, After finishing the PCB screen printing results are cooled by a 24v DC fan, this tool has specifications with a length of 60cm, width 40cm and height 80cm this machine is designed to minimize time and effort to be faster and get better results

Speculative Architecture

What is the problem of epiphylogenesis? We can define and understand the term, but what does it do and what does it demand of us? Indeed, one way of thinking about epiphylogenesis is through Bernard Stiegler’s claim that some forms of technology generate or enable long circuits of desire, and that this needs to be recalled in a time of short-circuits. Epiphylogenesis requires both that we pose problems differently, and that ‘we’ are, or should be, a problem to ourselves. Let me unpack this by beginning with what presents itself as a major problem: climate change, and the end of the world. What are we going to do? How can we change course? How do we save the world? The posing of the question in this way is only possible if there is a distinct ‘we’ who must then deliberate a course of action in relation to the world. Epiphylogenesis shifts the question towards the very possibility of this ‘we.’ How do formations of what comes to think of itself as ‘the human’ come into being, and what worlds and capacities do such formations make possible? For Stiegler the problem of climate change is ultimately the problem of who ‘we’ are, along with a constitutive tendency towards the failure to confront this question.

In Situ BSA (Bovine Serum Albumin) Assisted Electroless Plating Method with Superior Adhesion Property (Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2/2022)

Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)-Assisted Metal Deposition In article number 2101203, Geon Hwee Kim, Hui Yun Hwang, and Taechang An use a newly developed BSA in-situ crosslinking method to overcome the adhesion problem of flexible electrodes with the substrate. Through this technique, it is possible to fabricate a flexible electrode with superior adhesion force compared to previous studies, and even patterning to draw a desired circuit.

Design and fabrication of low-cost micromachining system for prototyping printed circuit boards

Printed circuit boards (PCBs) have a portentous position in constructing modern electronic equipment. Currently, chemical etching is the process used to produce PCBs at huge volumes, which is not suitable for preparing prototypes. The working environment is also not an encouraging one. There is no economical way to manufacture PCBs in low volumes, which is the basic requirement for Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs). Prototyping the desired circuit boards, prior to the mass production, is essential to avoid major losses by producing faulty designs. Developing a low-cost machine for prototyping PCBs may overcome these drawbacks. Hence, in this work, a machine capable of performing PCB mechanical milling operation on wide range of materials like copper/epoxy boards and flexible substrates has been developed. The machine developed is capable of milling lines that are 0.3 mm in width and 0.46 mm in depth. The performance of the machine reveals that it can mill any complex shapes and designs with expected accuracy. Selection of hardware components according to the needs would reduce the cost and programming snag further, which makes it affordable to SMEs.

Threshold Logic Technology based E-cube Routing on a 4-dimensional hypercube

Hypercube network connection is formed by connecting different N number of nodes that are expressed as a power of 2. If each node has an address of m bits then the total number of nodes in the Hypercube network is N=2^m. In calculating the predefined routing path for the case of this E-cube network, we apply deterministic algorithm which gives a deadlock free concept. For determining predefined routing path, node addresses involved in the path are calculated by using the exclusive operation, firstly, on the node addresses of source and destination, next, on the derived nodes according to the algorithm. In the present work, the Exclusive-OR operation is performed with the help of electron-tunneling based XOR gate which is made up of Multiple input threshold logic gate. This multiple input threshold logic gate technology is really different from the existing one. By using an emerging technology we are capable of making an electronic circuit with high speed, low cost, high concentration density, light in weight, reduced gate numbers and low power consumption. This technology is relies on the condition of linear threshold logic and electron-tunneling event. When we are interested in implementing a circuit, a multi-inputs but one-output based logic-gate will be taken account of consideration. In this work, we have designed an E-cube Routing on a 4-dimensional hypercube to find out the node addresses for predefining the deadlock free routing path from source to destination. To develop this “E-cube Routing on a 4-dimensional hypercube”, we must require a specific logic called Exclusive-OR gate and for this, some small components like 2-input OR gate, 2-input AND gates of different input conditions are essential. After arranging this XOR gate in a pattern discussed in section 2, a desired circuit is implemented. All the circuit we are intended to construct are given in due places with their threshold logic and simulation set, the simulation results are provided as well. Different truth tables, derivation of threshold logic expressions are given for clear understanding. We have taken our consideration of whether the present work circuits are faster or slower than the circuits of CMOS based- and Single electron transistor (SET) based-circuits. The power consumed at the time of tunneling event for a circuit is measured and sensed that it exists in the range between 10meV to 250meV which is very small amount. All the combinational circuits we have presented in this work are of ‘generic multiple input threshold logic gate’-based.

Emergent spatiotemporal population dynamics with cell-length control of synthetic microbial consortia.

The increased complexity of synthetic microbial biocircuits highlights the need for distributed cell functionality due to concomitant increases in metabolic and regulatory burdens imposed on single-strain topologies. Distributed systems, however, introduce additional challenges since consortium composition and spatiotemporal dynamics of constituent strains must be robustly controlled to achieve desired circuit behaviors. Here, we address these challenges with a modeling-based investigation of emergent spatiotemporal population dynamics using cell-length control in monolayer, two-strain bacterial consortia. We demonstrate that with dynamic control of a strain’s division length, nematic cell alignment in close-packed monolayers can be destabilized. We find that this destabilization confers an emergent, competitive advantage to smaller-length strains—but by mechanisms that differ depending on the spatial patterns of the population. We used complementary modeling approaches to elucidate underlying mechanisms: an agent-based model to simulate detailed mechanical and signaling interactions between the competing strains, and a reductive, stochastic lattice model to represent cell-cell interactions with a single rotational parameter. Our modeling suggests that spatial strain-fraction oscillations can be generated when cell-length control is coupled to quorum-sensing signaling in negative feedback topologies. Our research employs novel methods of population control and points the way to programming strain fraction dynamics in consortial synthetic biology.

A High-Speed Bidirectional Register with Parallel Loading using single electron Threshold Logic Technology

In this work we have concentrated our attention to a High Speed 4-bit Bidirectional Register with Parallel Loading counting on the principle of threshold logic gates (TLG). After determining the number of logic gates and other circuits needed to complete the desired circuit for our work, we implement some gates and circuits made up of tunnel junctions and capacitances. Some multi-inputs (greater than two) are designed or implemented with the assistance of modified version of the generic multi-input TLG. The types of gates suitable for the implementing the bidirectional Register are 3-input AND, 3-input NAND and 4-input OR gates, in addition an inverter and a more complex circuits like 4:1 Multiplexer are the part and parcel of the desired device. With the help of a 3-input AND gate and a 4-input OR gate, a 4:1 Multiplexer is built. By using the 3-input NAND gate a memory element – D Flip-flop is constructed. At last 4 number of 4:1 Multiplexers and another four number of D Flip-flops are combined in a parallel pattern to implement a 4-bit Bidirectional Register with Parallel Loading. Each component is made after analyzing their corresponding threshold linear equations. After constructing the threshold circuits, again they are formed by using the parameters as capacitors, tunnel junctions with their internal resistances. All the circuit, which are constructed, are verified by simulation with the help of SIMON and the result obtained are investigated and found that they are matched with the theoretical results. For comparing the fastness of our circuit with the CMOS-based or single electron transistor (SET) based circuit, the processing delays of all gates/ circuits are determined. How much power they consume are measured as well. Comparing the delays of CMOS-based and SET based circuit with the TLG based circuit we have decided that our 4-bit Bidirectional Register with Parallel Loading is speedier.

Systematic cell placement in quantum‐dot cellular automata embedding underlying regular clocking circuit

Quantum-dot cellular automata (QCA) is gaining worldwide popularity due to its higher device concentration, lower power indulgence, and better switching speed. The information flows in QCA with the polarization state defined by the placement of electrons instead of current flow. The cell interaction principle under the influence of the clocking zone controls the cell placement during QCA circuit design. Most of the designs reported so far used random cell placement, which has no fabricating sense. Moreover, it is equally important for a cell placement algorithm to follow a realistic, regular underlying clocking scheme to maintain proper routing channels. In this regard, a systematic cell placement for the combinational logic circuit in QCA is proposed using the widely accepted underlying regular clocking scheme, universal, scalable and efficient (USE). The proposed method traverses all possible paths of a combinational logic circuit from output to input to build the desired circuit generating the automatic cell layout. A grid of clock zone of USE clock scheme is considered in the initial layout driving different paths of the circuit and finally evolves as the desired circuit. The generated automatic QCA layouts are competitive in occupied area, delay, and its cell count, which advocates the significance of such a scheme.

Design and Implementation of Programmable Analog Board

&lt;p&gt;Prototyping of analog circuits is hair stretching work, and often get’s complicated because one has to work with breadboard. To eliminate bread boarding of big digital systems, FPGAs were developed over the past years for prototyping purposes. We have come up with similar thing for analog world. It’s like FPGA, but instead of digital it will create analog circuits like integrator, differentiator, adder based on coding. We have one plan to make it possible. FPGAs use RTL coding like VHDL/verilog and has their own s/w which converts coding to circuit net list and which gets implemented in FPGAs, now at this stage we don’t have that much knowledge to develop our own synthesizer s/w, hence we’ll use following plan. We will have OP-AMPs in circuit, and passive components which has capability to change it’s value based on programming. For resisters we use something known as digital POTs and for capacitors NCD2100 which is digital programmable variable capacitor. We’ll have interconnection between all of them via FETs, which will act as programmable switches. Now for programming, one has to write commands, which will be decoded by ASCII codes and accordingly switch matrix is programmed to form desired circuit. There is digital circuit which accepts ASCII bits and programs solid state switches, and with this one can implement amps, integrator, differentiators, adders, instrument amplifiers and combination of all above. Application of this thing can be found in prototyping, educational purposes and implementation of PID controllers.&lt;/p&gt;