Cinnamic Acid Content Research Articles

Investigation of the quality, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects of commercial carob molasses and determination of phenolic acids by using HPLC.

This study examines the bioactive properties and quality of commercial carob molasses, commonly consumed by children in Turkey for tonsillitis relief, while highlighting potential risks. Total phenolic content was analyzed spectrophotometrically, and phenolic acid composition by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). For the determination of health benefits, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity methods were used, and for quality control, pH, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), ash content, and water-soluble solids were determined. The results showed that there were differences in the bioactive properties of the samples. Sample 2 was found to have the highest antioxidant potential (93.86±8.46 ascorbic acid equivalent [AAE]) and metal chelation ability (56.99±1.91%). All carob molasses samples showed antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and Candida krusei, and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranged from 200 to ≥400µg/mL, approaching bactericidal/fungistatic effects. It was concluded that 5-HMF levels in all samples exceeded the 15mg/kg limit and that many samples' pH values (between 4.71 and 5.18) and ash contents were outside the acceptable ranges. HPLC analysis showed that Sample 2 had the highest gallic acid content (569.423±0.003µg/100mg), while Sample 6 had the highest cinnamic acid content (14.838±0.003µg/100mg). As a result, it was observed that carob molasses, consumed with the thought that it was beneficial for tonsillitis, was not as effective as expected on the related microorganisms. It was concluded that better quality control in carob molasses production and storage is needed, and stricter food regulations should be implemented for public health. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Carob is a fruit with important nutritional value for both adults and children thanks to its high sugar, dietary fiber, mineral, and phenolic compound content. The molasses obtained from the fruit is frequently used as a food supplement or to alleviate respiratory tract disorders in children. The findings of this study suggest that carob molasses, which is widely used for its health benefits, is not very effective against pathogens associated with respiratory tract disorders and underline the critical importance of improving quality criteria related to production, quality (5-hydroxymethylfurfural [5-HMF], pH levels, and ash content) control, and ensuring its safety after it is placed on the market. This is particularly important for the protection of vulnerable groups, including children, who may be more sensitive to potential risks. It is, therefore, essential that the quality of food products available on the market is rigorously assessed and that health claims are supported by scientific evidence.

Metabolomics integrated with transcriptomics provides insights into the phenylpropanoids biosynthesis pathway in Lilium davidii var. unicolor and L. lancifolium Thunb.

Lilium spp. is a world-famous bulbous flower with outstanding ornamental, edible, and medicinal value. Evaluating the taste of edible lilies and identifying important active substances and genes are necessary for germplasm improvement, new variety breeding, and industrial application. To better understand the phenylpropanoids and regalosides biosynthesis, L. davidii var. unicolor and L. lancifolium Thunb. bulbs were used for transcriptome and metabolite analysis. Results showed that the phenols and flavonoid contents in JT were lower than in LT, while the saponins and alkaloid contents in JT were higher than in LT. A total of 20,520 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 383 differential metabolites were searched. Integrated transcriptomics and metabolomics analysis showed that phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and flavonoid biosynthesis were differentially altered. Ninety-nine unigenes encoding ten phenolic acids and two flavonoids were identified as candidate genes involved in phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis. WGCNA analysis showed 76 phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis-related unigenes were verified as likely to be involved in phenylpropanoid metabolism and regalosides accumulation. Among them, 15 genes were used for qRT-PCR, and four genes were utilized for tissue-specific expression pattern analysis. Down-regulation of LdPAL2 and LdC4H1 in bulbs of L. davidii var. unicolor via virus induced gene silence (VIGS) reduced the contents of p-coumaric acid and cinnamic acid. These results contribute to understanding phenylpropanoid metabolism and identifying potential functional genes for improving the regalosides and flavonoids content in Lilium bulbs.

Physiological-Biochemical Characteristics and a Transcriptomic Profiling Analysis Reveal the Postharvest Wound Healing Mechanisms of Sweet Potatoes under Ascorbic Acid Treatment.

Sweet potatoes are extremely vulnerable to mechanical wounds during harvesting and postharvest handling. It is highly necessary to take measures to accelerate wound healing. The effect of 20 g L-1 of ascorbic acid (AA) treatment on the wound healing of sweet potatoes and its mechanisms were studied. The results validated that AA treatment significantly reduced the weight loss rate and disease index. AA treatment effectively enhanced the formation speed of lignin and SPP at the wound sites, decreased the MDA content, and maintained the cell membrane integrity. AA enhanced the activities of PAL, C4H, 4CL, CAD, and POD and increased the contents of chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, sinapic acid, ferulic acid, cinnamic acid, p-coumaryl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, and lignin. Based on a transcriptomic analysis, a total of 1200 genes were differentially expressed at the sweet potato wound sites by the AA treatment, among which 700 genes were upregulated and 500 genes were downregulated. The KEGG pathway analysis showed that the differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis; phenylpropanoid biosynthesis; and other wound healing-related pathways. As verified by a qRT-PCR, the AA treatment significantly upregulated the gene expression levels of IbSKDH, IbADT/PDT, IbPAL, and Ib4CL at the wound sties.

Comparative Study of Different Walnut (Juglans regia L.) Varieties Based on Their Nutritional Values.

Polyphenols, fatty acids, and mineral composition were studied in eight Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) samples: 'Milotai 10' (M10) and 'Alsószentiváni 117' (A117) Hungarian varieties derived from two Hungarian growing areas (Pálháza-P and Berzék-B), 'Chernivets'ky 1' from Ukraine, and 'Chandler' from the United States of America, Chile, and Brazil purchased on the Hungarian consumer market. The aim was to reveal which walnut variety is the most suitable for consumption from a nutritive point of view. In comparison, both Hungarian varieties grown in Hungarian climatic conditions had on average approximately 33% more polyphenols, approximately 22% more SFAs (saturated fatty acids), and approximately 27% more MUFAs (monounsaturated fatty acids). Regarding the minerals, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sodium were present in higher concentrations in both Hungarian varieties. Among the Hungarian-bred varieties, M10 mainly reached a higher compounds content, but the effects of the fruit site conditions were not clearly detected. Other varieties contained mainly potassium, copper, and zinc, such as 'Chandler' harvested from Chile. 'Chernivets'ky 1', harvested from Ukraine, had outstanding cinnamic acid and linoleic acid contents compared to the other examined varieties. All 'Chandler' samples (mainly the American) contained 11% more PUFAs compared to the samples derived from Hungary.

Evaluation of nutritional composition, biochemical, and quality attributes of different varieties of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

Due to the wide variety and great quality differences, it is very confusing for consumers and growers to choose the best variety. For this purpose, we conducted a greenhouse test to focus on the nutrients and bioactive substances of diverse varieties of tomato. Using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), we analyzed 28 quality traits across the nine tomato varieties. The results revealed significant variations in quality attributes of nine varieties, such as naringenin and cinnamic acid content, ranging from 0 to 2.02 and 0.97 μg/g, respectively. Similarly, sucrose, malic acid, lycopene, β-carotene, and gentisic acid exhibited high coefficients of variation of 31.60 %, 74.82 %, 30.94 %, 39.59 %, and 86.32 %, respectively. For the comprehensive evaluation of quality and difference among tomato varieties, we used Orthogonal Partial Least Squares-Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) combined with membership function methods. Notably, strawberry tomato (S2) and Yuanwei No.1 (S1) exhibited the highest quality, and Pink Belle No.2 (S7) showed lowest. The above metabolites show different accumulations potential among different varieties. In addition, we explored the nutritional variations in tomatoes different parts at various growth stages of two varieties. Overall, study result investigated metabolic differences of nutrients at different growth stages, especially ripening stage affecting fruit quality. Thus, these useful findings will provide useful information for consumers and researchers.

Effect of mixed fermentation of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and Lactiplantibacillus pentosus on phytochemical and flavor characteristics of Wallace melon juice.

Melons (Cucumis melo L.) are among the most commonly consumed fruits but they are highly susceptible to mechanical damage and rot during storage and transportation. New processed products are needed to avoid postharvest fruit loss and to increase health benefits. Fermentation is an effective means of utilizing the nutrients and improving flavor. Fermented melon juice (MJ) was prepared using three potential probiotics Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CICC21824 (LP), Lactiplantibacillus plantarum GB3-2 (LG), and Lactiplantibacillus pentosus XZ-34 (LX). The nutrition, flavor characteristics, and digestive properties of different fermented MJs were compared. The results demonstrated that, in comparison with mono-fermentation, mixed fermentation by LG and LX could increase the level of organic acids and phenolic acids. Correspondingly, antioxidant capacity was improved significantly and positively correlated with p-coumaric acid and cinnamic acid content. The production of alcohols and acids was more strongly enhanced by mixed culture fermentation, whereas mono-fermentation reduced the content of esters, especially ethyl acetate and isopropyl acetate. Aldehydes and ketones increased significantly in fermented MJ, and damascenone and heptanal could be the characteristic aroma compounds. Mixed fermented MJ provides more beneficial phytochemicals, better flavor, and stronger antioxidant properties than mono-fermentation. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Cinnamon extracts, trans-cinnamaldehyde and trans-cinnamic acid inhibit HDAC 1 activity.

Histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes play a key role in cell function and are implicated in several diseases such as inflammation, cancer, and neurodegeneration. Studies on natural products have revealed their potential and have led to increased research on natural HDAC inhibitors. Since the progression of these diseases is a prolonged process, dietary supplements and nutraceuticals consisting of plant extracts may be beneficial against HDAC related diseases. Beyond nutritional purposes, cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J. Presl), as a regularly consumed dietary additive due to its rich flavor, may present co-benefits during lifelong use. In this study, cinnamon extracts of differing polarities, trans-cinnamaldehyde and trans-cinnamic acid were evaluated for HDAC 1 inhibitory activity. The total phenol and flavonoid contents were quantified by spectrophotometry, while cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid analyses were performed using UPLC-DAD, ESI-MS/MS. Ethanol and dichloromethane extracts yielded the highest cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid contents of 389.17 mg per g extract and 11.85 mg per g extract, respectively. The essential oil (IC50: 51.11 μg ml-1) and 70% ethanol extract (IC50: 107.90 μg ml-1) showed the most potent HDAC 1 inhibitory activity. Individually, cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid were determined to have IC50 values of 7.58 μg ml-1 and 9.15 μg ml-1, respectively. As the 70% ethanol extract was able to yield remarkably lower cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid amounts, the potential of other moderately polar phenolic compounds for HDAC 1 inhibitory activity was revealed. The essential oil and 70% ethanol extracts of Cinnamomum cassia bark can be further evaluated in future studies for use in products against HDAC 1 related diseases.

The effects of LTP/CEO/SBA-15 potato starch film on the postharvest quality of Agaricus bisporus

A low-temperature plasma (LTP) modified film, loaded with cinnamon essential oil (CEO) in mesoporous silica nanoparticles (Santa Barbara Amorphous-15) (SBA-15), was prepared. This LTP/CEO/SBA-15 potato starch film's effect on the phenylpropane metabolic pathway of postharvest Agaricus bisporus was evaluated at 4 ± ± 1 °C. Results showed that the film maintained mushrooms' whiteness, water content, and hardness while reducing its relative conductivity, respiration rate, and malondialdehyde content. Film-packed mushrooms retained higher key enzyme activity of the phenylpropane metabolic pathway, especially LTP/CEO/SBA-15 potato starch film-packaged mushrooms with the highest enzyme activities during storage. Metabolites followed a similar trend, with the LTP/CEO/SBA-15 potato starch film-packaged mushrooms consistently having the highest total phenols, flavonoids, and lignin contents among treatment groups during storage. Additionally, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and cinnamic acid contents were the highest in LTP/CEO/SBA-15 starch film-packaged mushrooms. Therefore, the results indicate that the LTP/CEO/SBA-15 active film shows promise in maintaining postharvest mushroom quality.

Responses of Persian walnut on foliar applications of different biostimulants.

Biostimulants have different effects on plants. The aim of this paper is to determine responses of the 'Alsószentiváni 117' walnut cultivar on foliar applications of different biostimulants (Wuxal Ascofol, Kondisol, Alga K Plus). The nut traits (nut length, nut diameter, nut weight, kernel weight) and some phenolic compounds of the kernel were measured and detected. In 2020, during warmer early spring weather conditions under pistillate flowering receptivity, chlorogenic acid and quercetin content of kernels treated with Kondisol were higher than in control. All biostimulants influenced positive effects on catechin and rutin content, as well as treatments made with Wuxal Ascofol and Kondisol increased the juglon content of the kernel. In 2021, when the spring weather was typical for that period, only the Kondisol treatments had increasing effects on the catechin and chlorogenic acid content, than the control. The rutin and quercetin concentrations reached the highest value in this trial by Alga K Plus applications. The juglon content decreased in this year compared to the control. The pirocathecin, cinnamic acid, and gallic acid (except Wuxal Ascofol treatment in 2021) content decreased in all treatments in both observed years. Responses of woody fruit species on biostimulants applications depend on the weather conditions. Biostimulants had positive effects on the nut size characteristics in both observed years.

Evaluation of hackberry (Celtisaustralis L.) fruits as sources of bioactive compounds

Hackberry (Celtisaustralis L.) is native to the Mediterranean region and is distributed in Europe, Turkey, North Africa, and Iran. To the best of our knowledge, no study has been conducted on C.australis L. in the Arasbaran region, Iran. In the present study, total phenol (TP), flavonoid (TF), antioxidant capacity based on DPPH and FRAP assays and phenolic compounds and sugars profiles were investigated. According to the results, the range of antioxidant capacity based on DPPH and FRAP assays was 14.12–88.24% and 44.35–117.87 mg Fe2+/100 g, respectively. Also, the range of gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, rutin, p-coumaric acid, rosmaric acid, cinnamic acid, and apigenin content was 2.59–26.32, 2.03–9.32, 0.94–11.35, 1.80–4.857, 2.32–9.52, 4.74–51.38, 0.18–2.10 and 0.27–1.37 mg/g, respectively. The results of factor analysis showed that the C12, C14, C15, C20, C8, C16, C3, and C20 genotypes are positively characterized by the first principal component (PCA1) that have a higher caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, rutin, p-coumaric acid, rosmaric acid, quercetin, cinnamic acid, and apigenin phenolic compounds. Based on cluster analysis, the twenty genotypes were located in 2 main clusters. In general, the obtained results can be useful for breeding programs and the introduction of cultivars in Celtisaustralis L.

Exogenous acetone O-(2-naphthylsulfonyl)oxime improves the adverse effects of excess copper by copper detoxification systems in maize

The current study is to elucidate the responses of maize seedlings to excess copper and acetone O-(2-naphthylsulfonyl)oxime (NS) pretreatment. The study was divided into the following experimental groups: 18 h distilled water (DW) control (C), 6 h 0.3 mM NS + then 12 h DW (NS), 6 h DW + then 12 h 1 mM CuSO4.5H2O (CuS), 0.3 mM NS for 6 h + then 1 mM CuSO4.5H2O (NS + CuS) for 12 h. When the NS + CuS group is compared with the CuS group; It accumulated 10% more copper, while the ABA, H2O2, MDA, and carotenoid contents decreased significantly, the total chlorophyll, proline, gallic acid, ascorbic acid, catechol, trans-P-qumaric acid, and cinnamic acid contents increased. While SOD activity, which is one of the antioxidant system enzymes, decreased with NS application, GPX, CAT, and APX activities increased despite copper stress. When all the findings are evaluated as a whole, exogenous NS, despite excessive copper, ameliorated the adverse effects of copper stress by increasing the effectiveness of the enzymatic and non-enzymatic components of the antioxidant system and the contents of phenolic substances. In addition, increasing the copper content by 10% reveals its importance in terms of NS phytoremediation. Abbreviation: Style-sheet: When full form and abbreviated form both are used as keywords, retain both as provided by the author

Induction role of chitosan nanoparticles to Anethum graveolens extract against food-borne bacteria, oxidant, and diabetic activities in vitro.

Foodborne diseases as well as Foodborne pathogens are a global issue with significant effects on human health and economy. Therefore, several investigators have tried to find new alternative approaches to prevent and control this problem. In this context, the present study aimed to find some possible and effective approaches for controlling food-borne bacteria via Dill (Anethum graveolens L.) extract (DE) loaded with chitosan nanoparticles (ChNPs) besides its anti-oxidant and anti-diabetic activities. Flavonoid and phenolic contents of DE were detected by HPLC, indicating the presence of 18 constituents, high content (22526.51 μg/mL) of chlorogenic acid, followed by 2236.21 μg/mL of coumaric acid and 2113.81 μg/mL of pyrocatechol. In contrast, low contents of cinnamic acid, methyl gallate, apigenin, daidzein, quercetin, syringic acid, and kaempferol were detected. B. cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, S. typhi, E. faecalis, and C. albicans were highly inhibited by DE loaded ChNPs (DELChNPs) with inhibition zones (IZs) of 28.50 ± 0.87, 30.33 ± 0.58, 29.33 ± 0.58, 23.17 ± 0.76, 25.76 ± 0.58, and 24.17 ± 0.29 mm with MIC 15.41 ± 0.36, 7.70 ± 0.17, 15.58 ± 0.07, 31.08 ± 0.07, 31.04 ± 0.07 and 62.33 ± 0.29 μg/mL compared with inhibitory activity caused by DE, where the IZs were 25.83 ± 1.44, 29.67 ± 0.85, 24.83 ± 0.76, 20.33 ± 1.53, 21.17 ± 0.29, and 19.67 ± 1.15 mm with MIC 62.33 ± 0.29, 31.08 ± 0.07, 62.50 ± 0.29, 31.08 ± 0.07, 31.04 ± 0.07, and 249.0 ± 1.73 μg/mL, respectively. Also, the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of DELChNPs was less than DE against all tested microorganisms. The MBC/MIC index documented that DELChNPs were more effective than DE. The biofilm of tested bacteria was inhibited by DE and DELChNPs but with different levels of anti-biofilm activity. For example, the anti-biofilm activity was 79.26 and 86.15% against B. cereus using DE and DELChNPs, respectively. DELChNPs and DE, compared with the ascorbic acid, exhibited DPPH scavenging % with IC50 values of 7.8 μg/mL, 13.96 μg/mL, and 4.83 μg/mL, respectively. Anti-diabetic activity in vitro via inhibition of amylase indicated that IC50 was 164.2 μg/mL and 164.3 μg/mL using DE and DELChNPs, respectively. This investigation highlights the vital DE phytoconstituents, particularly DELChNPs which possess important therapeutic effects against food-borne microorganisms and could be utilized as a safe alternative to synthetic drugs.

Effects of Different Cooking Methods on Phenol Content and Antioxidant Activity in Sprouted Peanut.

Peanut sprout is a high-quality healthy food, which not only has beneficial effects, but also a higher phenol content than peanut seed. In this study, peanut sprout was treated with five cooking methods, namely boiling, steaming, microwave heating, roasting, and deep-frying, and the phenol content, monomeric phenol composition, and antioxidant activity were determined. The results showed that, compared with unripened peanut sprout, the total phenol content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) decreased significantly after the five ripening processes, and the highest retention of phenols and flavonoids was associated with microwave heating (82.05% for TPC; 85.35% for TFC). Compared with unripened peanut sprout, the monomeric phenol composition in germinated peanut was variable after heat processing. After microwave heating, except for a significant increase in the cinnamic acid content, no changes in the contents of resveratrol, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, and epicatechin were observed. Furthermore, there was a significant positive correlation of TPC and TFC with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl scavenging capacity, 2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) scavenging capacity, and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power in germinated peanut, but not with hydroxyl free radical scavenging capacity, in which the main monomer phenolic compounds were resveratrol, catechin, and quercetin. The research results indicate that microwave heating can effectively retain the phenolic substances and antioxidant activity in germinated peanuts, making it a more suitable ripening and processing method for germinated peanuts.

Foliar Application of Chitosan Accelerates Wound Periderm Formation with an Intensified Deposition of Suberin Polyphenolic and Lignin in the Wounds of Potato Tubers

Potato tubers are susceptible to wounding during post-harvest processes, leading to quality decline, perishability and large economic losses. In this study, the potato cultivar, ‘Longshu No.7′, was foliar-sprayed with 3% chitosan (w/v) three times during the pre-harvest period after flowering to evaluate the effect of foliar spraying with chitosan on suberization processing in the wounds of harvested potato tubers. Our results demonstrated that foliar sprayed with chitosan significantly reduced wound-induced fresh weight loss and dry rot disease index by 37.34% and 41.60% on day 28 after wounding, respectively. Foliar sprayed with chitosan accelerated the deposition of suberin polyphenolic and lignin at the wound sites of potato tubers with the formation of thicker cell layers. This occurred with increased localized activities of key enzymes in the suberin polyphenolic and lignin pathways, including phenylalanine ammonia lyase, 4-coumaryl-coenzyme A ligase, cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase and peroxidase (33.90–64.32%), as well as the contents of cinnamic acid, sinapic acid, flavonoids, lignins and total phenolics (19.70–23.46%) in the wounded sites of potato tubers on day 7 after wounding. Our results indicated that foliar application of chitosan accelerated wound-induced suberization of potato tubers and could mitigate post-harvest product damages.

Dynamic changes in the bacterial communities and metabolites of Moringa oleifera leaves during fermentation with or without pyroligneous acid

In this study, Moringa oleifera leaves (MOL) were fermented with or without pyroligneous acid (PA) for 3, 7, 14, and 30 days. PA addition enhanced the contents of acetic acid and true protein (P < 0.01) and decreased pH (P < 0.01) and the contents of coliform bacteria, nonprotein nitrogen (P < 0.01), and ammonium nitrogen (P < 0.01). With the addition of PA, the abundance of Lactobacillus increased, but the abundance of Enterobacter decreased. A total of 754 metabolites were identified. In the MOL fermented with PA, the contents of apigenin, arbutin, 2-methoxy-4-vinyl phenol, and 4-methoxy cinnamic acid increased, while the content of skatole decreased compared with the contents for the MOL fermented without PA. The detected metabolites were correlated with bacterial communities, especially Lactobacillus and Weissella. In conclusion, the addition of PA improves the fermentation quality and protein preservation and affects the microbial communities and metabolites of fermented MOL.

Influence of drought stress and foliar application of chitosan on nutrient accumulation and phenolic composition of Thymus daenensis Celak

AbstractChanges in climate have intensified the drought in semi‐arid regions. A shift toward cultivation of low‐input crops, including high‐value medicinal and herbal plants seems a more sustainable alternative strategy. A 2‐year field study was conducted to investigate the influence of drought stress and chitosan on nutrient density and phenolic compounds of thyme. Treatments consisted of a factorial combination of three irrigation and three chitosan rates. Irrigation treatments consisted of keeping experimental plots at field capacity (no stress), irrigation when plots reached 50% of field capacity (mild stress), and irrigation when plots reached 25% of field capacity (severe stress). Chitosan rates were 0, 200, and 400 μL L−1, while K+, and to some degree Ca+2, accumulation increased by drought, N, P, and all micronutrients (Mn2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, and Fe2+) decreased steadily as drought stress intensified. Drought stress reduced N and P by 23%–19% and 35%–23%, respectively, over the 2 years. Application of chitosan enhanced the accumulation of macro and micronutrients. Drought stress resulted in alterations in phenolic composition. In mature plants, almost all phenolic compounds, except thymol, increased as drought stress intensified. Cinnamic acid and rosmarinic contents, as the two major identified compounds, increased by 31% and 45%, respectively, under severe drought. Similar to drought, chitosan elicitation was more effective in elevating phenolic compounds in mature plants. The response of thyme to chitosan was independent of soil moisture availability. The results indicated that application of 400 μL−1 chitosan improved nutrient density and dry matter while significantly saved irrigation water.

A Joint Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analysis Reveals the Regulation of Shading on Lignin Biosynthesis in Asparagus.

Asparagus belongs to the Liliaceae family and has important economic and pharmacological value. Lignin plays a crucial role in cell wall structural integrity, stem strength, water transport, mechanical support and plant resistance to pathogens. In this study, various biological methods were used to study the mechanism of shading on the asparagus lignin accumulation pathway. The physiological results showed that shading significantly reduced stem diameter and cell wall lignin content. Microstructure observation showed that shading reduced the number of vascular bundles and xylem area, resulting in decreased lignin content, and thus reducing the lignification of asparagus. Cinnamic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid and sinapyl alcohol are crucial intermediate metabolites in the process of lignin synthesis. Metabolomic profiling showed that shading significantly reduced the contents of cinnamic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid and sinapyl alcohol. Transcriptome profiling identified 37 differentially expressed genes related to lignin, including PAL, C4H, 4CL, CAD, CCR, POD, CCoAOMT, and F5H related enzyme activity regulation genes. The expression levels of POD, CCoAOMT, and CCR genes were significantly decreased under shading treatment, while the expression levels of CAD and F5H genes exhibited no significant difference with increased shading. The downregulation of POD, CCoAOMT genes and the decrease in CCR gene expression levels inhibited the activities of the corresponding enzymes under shading treatment, resulting in decreased downstream content of caffeic acid, ferulic acid, sinaperol, chlorogenic acid and coniferin. A significant decrease in upstream cinnamic acid content was observed with shading, which also led to decreased downstream metabolites and reduced asparagus lignin content. In this study, transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis revealed the key regulatory genes and metabolites of asparagus lignin under shading treatment. This study provides a reference for further understanding the mechanism of lignin biosynthesis and the interaction of related genes.

Bioprocess development for enhancing cell biomass, differential picrosides accumulation, and gene expression profiling at shake flask levels in suspension cultures of Picrorhiza kurroa

Plant cell suspension culture is an alternative and perpetual source for large-scale metabolites production in significantly less time. However, this approach has not yet been executed in Picrorhiza kurroa for their specialized metabolites production. Therefore, the present study aimed to develop the suspension culture process from the rhizome and leaf callus of P. kurroa by optimizing the physical cultivation parameters. Furthermore, the established cultures were subjected to sequential scale-up at 250, 500, 1000, 2000, and 5000 mL shake flask levels to evaluate growth, metabolites accumulation, and gene expression profiling of picrosides biosynthesis. Concurrently, the growth, metabolites content, and gene expression patterns were also assessed at the 4th, 8th, and 12th months of the incubation period. The investigation results revealed that the cell biomass in suspension cultures significantly improved solely by varying the culture parameters. The initial inoculum density (3 g/75 mL), subculture by pouring method, shaking speed (80 rpm), and pH (5.8) were suitable for enhanced production of cell biomass in rhizome and leaf suspension cultures in a 250 mL shake flask. During sequential scale-up, the cell biomass was reached in rhizome suspension (335 g FW; 13.80 g DW) and leaf suspension (263.33 g FW; 10.87 g DW) under optimized parameters at 5000 mL shake flask level. However, a maximum increase in the cell growth index and cell biomass (DW) in g/L of the medium was observed in a 250 mL flask compared to other shake flask volumes. In rhizome and leaf suspension, total picrosides (PI, PII, and PIII) (rhizome: 2.36–2.48 mg/g DW; leaf: 2.50–2.67 mg/g DW) and total precursors (vanillic acid, caffeic acid, cinnamic acid, catalpol, and aucubin) (rhizome: 1.35–1.37 mg/g DW; leaf: 1.20–1.45 mg/g DW) content range was observed during sequential scale-up at 250–5000 mL shake flask levels. Hence, no significant level of variation was observed in picrosides content (PI, PII, and PII in mg/g DW) with respect to different shake flask volumes (250–5000 mL) in rhizome and leaf suspension culture, respectively. Nevertheless, the productivity of metabolites content in mg/L of medium with respect to cell growth in g/L of medium showed a significant level of variation. The 250 mL shake flask volume culture of rhizome and leaf cell suspension accumulated the maximum total picrosides (31.07 and 31.20 mg/L of medium) and total precursors (17.04 and 16.94 mg/L of medium) content with cell biomass (12.53 and 11.69 g/L of medium), respectively. The results also revealed that the shikimate/phenylpropanoid pathway (EPSPS), mevalonate pathway (PMK and GDPS), non-mevalonate pathway (ISPD, DXPS, and ISPE), and iridoid pathway (GS, G10H, UGT, F3D, SQM, and ACT) genes showed upregulated expression in the rhizome and leaf suspension cultures. Analyzing the 1st month cultures with 4th, 8th, and 12th month cultures, the study depicted that growth index, cell viability, metabolites content, productivity in mg/L of the medium, and gene expression pattern were decreased with the age of cultures under one year of incubation. The present investigation delivered a simple yet feasible suspension culture process for metabolites enriched cell biomass production in P. kurroa.

Intercropping of wheat alleviates the adverse effects of phenolic acids on faba bean.

After years of continuous cultivation of faba beans (Vicia faba L.), autotoxic substances accumulate in the soil, leading to a high incidence of Fusarium oxysporum (FOF) wilt. Faba bean-wheat intercropping is often used to alleviate these problems. The goal of this research was to explore the role of benzoic acid and cinnamic acid in promoting the occurrence of faba bean Fusarium wilt and the potential mechanism of faba bean-wheat intercropping to control the occurrence of this disease. We established a field experiment and a hydroponic experiment that involved the inoculation of FOF and the exploration of exogenous addition of cinnamic acid and benzoic acid at different concentrations, the effects on the degree of peroxidation, resistance system, and ultrastructure of faba bean roots. In addition, the antioxidative response of faba bean-wheat intercropping against the autotoxicity of benzoic acid and cinnamic acid was examined. In the field experiment, compared with monoculture, faba bean-wheat intercropping effectively controlled the occurrence of Fusarium wilt, significantly reduced the contents of H2O2 and O2 - in faba bean roots, increased the expression and activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), maintained cell stability, and significantly reduced the contents of benzoic acid and cinnamic acid in faba bean rhizosphere. In the pot experiment, it was found that compared with the control, different concentrations of benzoic acid and cinnamic acid (50, 100, and 200 mg·L-1) significantly increased the content of H2O2 and O2 - in faba bean, decreased the activity and gene expression of antioxidant enzymes SOD and CAT, and damaged cell membrane structure. Furthermore, it promoted the occurrence of Fusarium wilt of faba bean. The faba bean-wheat intercropping alleviated the stress. Benzoic acid and cinnamic acid can increase the content of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anions in faba bean plants, reduce the enzymatic activity and expression of antioxidant enzyme genes, damage the cell membrane structure, and promote the occurrence of faba bean Fusarium wilt. The faba bean-wheat intercropping can effectively alleviate the autotoxicity of benzoic acid and cinnamic acid and reduce the occurrence of faba bean Fusarium wilt.

Enhancing antioxidant activity of olive pomace with reinforcing its phenolic compounds by fermentation

Background and objective Valorization of olive pomace (OP) by solid-state fermentation of the generally regarded as safe yeast, Kluyveromyces marxianus was reported to enhance its antioxidant activity. However, a detailed identification of bioactive compounds present in unfermented OP and fermented OP was not clarified. The aim of the present study was to identify the major classes of bioactive compounds, and alteration in the phenolic profile after fermentation to explain the enhanced therapeutic activity of OP after fermentation. Materials and methods Methanolic extracts of unfermented OP and fermented OP were subjected to qualitative preliminary phytochemical analysis. Moreover, both extracts were subjected to high-performance liquid chromatography analysis using different phenolic compounds’ standards. Also, total antioxidant capacity of both extracts was evaluated. Results Simple phenols, tannin, phlobatannins, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, reducing sugars, alkaloids, carbohydrates, sterols, and triterpenes are the major phytochemical classes present in both extracts. While both extracts lack saponin, anthraquinones, free amino acids, free cholesterol, and polyuronides. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis confirmed that fermentation of OP by K. marxianus led to a sharp increase in rutin, vanillin, and cinnamic acid contents by 69.22, 39.35, and 31.40%, respectively. This was accompanied with 22.78, 7.07, and 5.81% increase in quercetin, catechin, and syringic acid contents, respectively. While gallic, caffeic, and coumaric acid contents were decreased after fermentation by 59.24, 55.25, and 53.96%, respectively. Methanolic extracts of unfermented OP and fermented OP showed a maximum total antioxidant capacity of 144.81±1.47 and 187.57±4.00 mgVCE/l at a concentration of 10 and 6 mg/ml, respectively. Conclusion Solid-state fermentation of OP with K. marxianus strongly affected its total antioxidant capacity by increasing its content of several bioactive compounds.