Film Media Research Articles

The Consciousness in Dreams, Film, and Architecture

Dreams are a universal phenomenon and tie all mankind together. They have inspired man throughout history from influencing religious mythologies to various scientific innovations. Dreams have also inspired various art works. They are the ultimate visual, spatial and temporal experience and, due to this attribute, dreams are identified with the act of watching movies. Likewise, architecture provides visual, spatial and temporal experience. There are striking similarities between the medium of films and dreams experience. Thus movies have produced the most satisfying imitations of Dream experiences. But even though the architecture also provides a visual, spatial, and temporal experience, the attempt to portray dream characteristics deliberately is rare to find. This paper aims to narrow the gap regarding the understanding of the state of consciousness while experiencing dreams, films, and architecture. Thus, narrowing the gap between the three disciplines. The study is primarily based on qualitative data analysis. The research makes use of discoveries in the field of neuroscience and elaborates on the existing findings. The research concludes that all three disciplines have a lot in common and certain attributes of each can be experienced in the other.

Cinematic darkness: dreaming across film and immersive digital media

As with films previously, claims are being made today about the capacity of immersive environments, including virtual reality, to offer viewers or experiencers effective simulations of altered states of consciousness. In this article, we look anew at the enduring question of time-based mechanical (lens based and digital) media’s ability not merely to take us outside of or besides ourselves, but to generate an imaginary realm of their own. Our analysis centres on the use of darkness. Often associated with the passage from one state of consciousness to another, darkness has become a prevalent aesthetic in cinematic immersive media. In some ways, as we will see, the latest technologies of audio-vision appear less apt than conventional cinema to induce us to “cross the bridge” and venture into the land of phantoms. In others, they emerge as privileged entries into the dreamlike worlds of our contemporary, technologized era. In spite of differences in viewing conditions, we find that between the older medium of 2D film and that of cinematic virtual reality, darkness, combined with the illusion of depth and visual replication of motion proves to be a particularly potent harbinger of altered states.

Online Algorithm Design of English Translation of Film and Television Works under the Background of Media Cultural Information.

As a carrier and medium of culture, film and television have richer cultural connotations and a mission of cross-cultural communication. The translation and dissemination of film and television works not only play an important role in enhancing understanding and communication between different countries, but also contribute to the social life and values of ordinary people. Influence is growing. In order to improve the media communication function of film and television works, this paper attempts to explain and discuss how subtitle translation uses these two translation strategies through the analysis of Chinese and foreign film and television dramas. Through the analysis of the specific translation process of film and television works, the author draws the conclusion that in order to achieve the specific translation purpose, the subtitle translation should be based on the author's intention, translation purpose, text type, and reader factors. This paper adopts a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods and selects suitable examples to explain or illustrate the phenomenon of film and television translation in the description and analysis process. The system designed in the paper is designed with the dissemination and evaluation of film and television works as parameters. The example in this study is that the author himself recorded it according to the Chinese and English subtitles on the screen when watching. Without personal modification, the selected films are officially official institutions, published or broadcast translations. This research focuses on the dialectical analysis and thinking of the collected corpus, so that the conclusions are more convincing than just giving some perceptual examples.

Konzepte singulärer und pluraler Autorschaft in Filmkritik und Filmproduktion

Abstract Debates about authorship in cinema have held a privileged position in film studies since the 1950s, when the young generation of critics of the film journal Cahiers du Cinema formulated the politique des auteurs. This critical strategy proposed that the director of a film was the major creative source of the finished work. Since this assumption contradicts the industrial and collaborative character of the film medium, the politique has been questioned, attacked and reformulated ever since its beginnings. The auteur theory was appropriated and deconstructed under the influence of structuralist and poststructuralist theories that questioned the very concepts of individual creativity and self-expression. Nevertheless, questions about authorship in cinema did not vanish but were developed in many ways. If film is regarded not only as an art form but as a commodity, the director’s name cannot only be regarded as a sign of a discernible style (a ›world view‹), but as a brand name. ›Scorsese‹, ›Tarantino‹, ›Lynch‹, ›Nolan‹ – these names imply certain images, dramatic approaches, and themes. They also serve as a label for marketing a product. Directors and producers like Steven Spielberg or Ridley Scott lend their names to a certain kind of media production (film or television series) that raises expectations associated with their work. They do not necessarily work as a director. As producers – or even only as the owners of a production company – they may function as a kind of team leader, leaving the creative work to hired teams. In television, the showrunner is the major creative and managing force in the production of a series that is scripted, shot, and directed by several production crews simultaneously. Film and media studies have sought to discern the structures of collective working from historical and contemporary perspectives. Bordwell and others have described the (Hollywood) system and its mode of production, that defined the auteurs’ work. When looking closer at ›the system‹, it becomes obvious that there are different kinds of authorship in existence. Recent production studies on the working conditions in todays’ television have sought to analyse the structures of working together and ask questions about individual agency. The growing awareness of collective authorship promotes new ways of close film analysis. The German television series Babylon Berlin here serves as an example of a major contemporary media production with multiple creative influences and explicit collective authorship. A closer look at the successful series reveals the impact of this plurality on its storytelling and form.

Hollywood Harmony: Musical Wonder and the Sound of Cinema

Hollywood Harmony: Musical Wonder and the Sound of Cinema

The Witch in the Closet: Disney's Frozen as Adaptation and Its Potential for Queer and Feminist Readings

The Witch in the Closet: Disney's <i>Frozen</i> as Adaptation and Its Potential for Queer and Feminist Readings

The dynamic and interactive capacity of drawing in dialogue with other artforms, technology and their relationship with its audience

This paper discusses the dynamic and interactive capacity of drawing in dialogue with other artforms, technology and their relationship with its audience. The drawing evolves live via relatively traditional materials and techniques. Multiple collaborative productions viewed through the mediums of theatre, film and (live) audio-visual installations have put this into practice. Here, live drawing is transposed, presented and integrated through technology. However, technology is also deployed to explore cross-disciplinary relations by means of Artificial Intelligence. Drawing in a performative setting resolves a story in space ‘and’ time and constantly considers audience engagement. A diverse range of artist ability and skill is required, with room and reason for representational (gestural) drawing, conceptual and contemporary ideas, such as dramaturgical drawing. Artist’s competency in dramaturgy, choreography and videography is vital. Several performances with writers, dancers, composers and Artificial Intelligence engineers signify the virtue and artistry of drawing process and product in a live setting. The cross-disciplinary stage production The Shelter is used however as a specific example in demonstrating drawing as a dynamic, interactive temporal, transient and transformational artform.

Editorial Introduction

Editorial Introduction

The Mortgaged Miracle Social Stratification in Contemporary Estonian Cinema

Abstract According to recent OECD statistics, Estonia is the European Union country with the highest income inequalities. Among all the ex-Warsaw bloc states, the Baltic country also has the highest household debt. Despite these dire socio-economic indicators, Estonia’s path to economic development, the adaptation of the purest forms of neoliberalism to be found in Europe, is often hailed among economists. Former prime minister Mart Laar, one of the key architects of what was dubbed by some the Estonian Economic Miracle, admitted that his guideline for the post-Soviet economic reform (and the only book he read on economics) was Milton Friedman’s Free to Choose. How does inequality, social exclusion and growing social stratification manifest itself in Estonian contemporary cinema? The debut films of three directors, Vallo Toomla, Mihkel Ulk and Toomas Hussar, which all have a contemporary setting, address the neoliberal transformation process to various degrees. All three debut films are genre films: Mushrooming (Hussar, 2012) is a comedy, Zero Point (Ulk, 2014) a high-school drama and The Pretenders (Toomla, 2016) a thriller. None of the films directly addresses the social stratification of Estonian society. The films engage the subject with a low level of politicization, yet each of the films is a chronotope of the engagement of the film medium with society. Especially the question of individual responsibility to society, accountability for social exclusion and possible alternatives to neoliberalism are either addressed in an apprehensive way or, through their absence, deemed irrelevant. How did Friedman’s claim that economic freedom equals political freedom, that the market is the only effective tool and that self-interest is the only acceptable driving force in society affect the Estonian cinemascape? This article argues that the chronotope of contemporary cinema in the small Baltic country is an outopia, a no-place, in which alternatives to the status quo have no more reference points. The outopian outlook on society is manifested either by an absence in the belief of the integrity of politics and media (Mushrooming), by an implicit acceptance of social exclusion (Zero Point) or by the acknowledgement that faking material wealth is the only tool for maintaining social relationships (The Pretenders).

Cultural Identification of Entrepreneurship Competency through Tampan Tailor Film based on Multimodality Perspective

Tracing the life story of an entrepreneur, many ups and downs occur and are difficult to map in detail, but their track record can be clearly illustrated through the medium of film. This research aims to map out the key visuals through the scenes of Tampan Tailor, as one of the films that promoted entrepreneurship in Indonesia, through multimodality. Multimodality research will use the mixture of Cultural Performance Theory by Victor Turner and 13 Indicators of Entrepreneurship Competency by Spencer &amp; Spencer in order to map the key elements of the film scenes. This research relies on a qualitative approach with Multimodality Discourse Analysis by O’Halloran. The visual data collected in the research shows that entrepreneurship capabilities comes from the hardships the character faced along the story, even though the character does not contribute directly to tailoring business for the first half of the film. This is strengthened by financial condition of the character and his daily life to develop his entrepreneurial skills. Commitment, Perseverance, High Performance Focus and Opportunity are the key factors to develop entrepreneur’s competency as displayed in Tampan Tailor film. Throughout the visual scenes in the film, the audience can identify how the main character develops his soft and hard skills necessary to become a quality entrepreneur. It can be concluded from this research that there are numerous ways to express how entrepreneurial skills should be developed. These skills can develop not only in their field of expertise, but also outside their field which highlights the importance of working experience in order to become an entrepreneur. Keywords: Tampan tailor, entrepreneurship competency, cultural performance, film, multimodality.

الفيلم الإلكتروني في تعليم الحوار بالمدرسة الثانوية

This study seeks to show students' abilities after utilizing the cartoon film medium to improve their dialogue skills in 10th grade students at Bekasi First Governmental Islamic High School, as well as to compare the results of the cartoon film media to the traditional technique. This study employs experimental research with a quantitative methodology, as well as the creation of a real-world experiment (one group, pre-test and post-test). The effectiveness of students' acquisition of dialogue skills development, understanding the content of dialogues, and learning outcomes in dialogue skill appeared after utilizing the cartoon video at a school. There is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test, indicating that using the cartoon film method to teach conversation to pupils is quite effective.

Cavell on Color

One of the special challenges in approaching Stanley Cavell’s writing on the arts is how to understand the relation between what are often read as theoretical generalities with Cavell’s particular interpretations of individual works. The latter are not presented as mere applications of the former, while the former are clearly meant to be something more than mere generalizations from the latter. When it comes to Cavell’s writings on film, we find a representative methodological statement in the Foreword to the 1979 enlarged edition of The World Viewed, where he asserts that “what constitutes an ‘element’ of the medium of film is not knowable prior” to discoveries by filmmaking and criticism itself. He refers to this “reciprocity between element and significance” as “the cinematic circle.” But how are we to orient ourselves within the cinematic circle? What about those places in Cavell’s own writing where theoretical generalities and individual readings seem divorced?

Visualizing Tanks

Abstract Rapidly changing technology transformed not only military affairs in the half century before 1914 but also the printing industry. In particular, images of all kinds became available to the public on an unprecedented scale. This allowed governments to call on artists both to propagandize the war effort and record the world-historical events. In the images they created during the Great War, official war artists did much to shape the public perceptions of such novel technologies as the tank. Especially in the robust war art programs of Britain and France, artists emphasized the blank menace of machines without evidence of human agency. Images of implacable machines rearing over blasted landscapes appeared in salons, books, magazines, newspapers, and in the new medium of film. The images sank home. During the interwar period, military mechanization incorporated tanks into armored forces that projected that same menace and invincibility on a larger scale, the very characteristics that commended tank forces to totalitarian regimes.

Quatre Peintres Belges au Travail: Paul Haesaerts’s Film on Edgar Tytgat, Albert Dasnoy, Jean Brusselmans and Paul Delvaux (1952)

Belgian art historian and filmmaker Paul Haesaerts (1901–1974) made a significant contribution to the promotion of modern Flemish art. In the late 1940s, he started experimenting with the medium of film to practice a new form of lens-based art criticism. The understudied documentary Quatre peintres belges au travail (1952) presents Belgian artists Edgar Tytgat, Albert Dasnoy, Jean Brusselmans and Paul Delvaux at work in their studio. On a large sheet of glass placed in front of the camera, they each paint one of the seasons that also represent a stage in a person’s life. A close reading of this Kodachrome color film sheds light on the context of mid-century art reproductions, mass media and post-war Flemish culture. It also examines in what way this film operates as Haesaerts’s concept of cinéma critique, while raising questions as to the way Haesaerts attempted to reconcile the spatial art of painting with the temporal medium of film.

On superheroes and their mafia: Using The Lego Batman Movie to explain relational aspects of narcissism.

Contemporary social discourse often emphasises the role of popular culture in the emergence of narcissistic disturbances. That the very same popular culture might be uniquely positioned to explain narcissism has been less explored. This article is part of a discussion series developed to teach registrars psychoanalytic concepts through the medium of film. It explores the depiction of narcissism in the 2017 The Lego Batman Movie. Surprisingly for its genre, Lego Batman does not reify pejorative archetypes but rather draws out the relational genesis of Batman's narcissism. The film closely aligns with an object-relations view and can help challenge the tendency, even among psychiatrists, to emphasise the self-importance in narcissistic disorders over underlying object-related conflicts. Furthermore, with its striking audio-visual techniques, the film both enlivens and distils complex psychoanalytic concepts and therapeutic processes for a general psychiatry audience.

Absence in Cinema: The Art of Showing Nothing by Justin Remes

Reviewed by: Absence in Cinema: The Art of Showing Nothing by Justin Remes Cameron Moneo (bio) Absence in Cinema: The Art of Showing Nothing by Justin Remes. Columbia University Press. Film and Culture Series. 2020. 264 pages. $95.00 hardcover; $28.00 paper; also available in e-book Absence in Cinema: The Art of Showing Nothing is a witty, richly detailed book filled with holes, gaps, and omissions. Justin Remes asks us to look at the invisible, to listen to the inaudible, and surprises us with the strangely ample rewards of making ourselves present to an absence—which is, after all, merely "a presence in disguise," with a whole set of unique features.1 This is not the first study of absence in art, but it is the first to pay close attention to absence as a gesture in cinema, that stubbornly audiovisual art (hard emphasis on the visual). Remes's subject is avant-garde cinema, whose manifold uses of absence tend to recast theoretical assumptions about the film medium and expand its aesthetic possibilities. In this way, Absence in Cinema forms a companion volume to Remes's Motion(less) Pictures: The Cinema of Stasis, whose chapter on "monochrome films" already began to beckon us toward the voids we enter here.2 To ward off the infinite abyss of absence in potentia, Remes clarifies that he is dealing in absences that thwart expectation and are strongly defined by their relata. Citing Jean-Paul Sartre, Remes insists on the "real" [End Page 219] relation of absence to what it negates.3 If Yves Klein and Andy Warhol both make invisible artworks, these artworks are phenomenologically distinct from each other, despite all their (non)appearances. The medium of film would seem to present a problem for studies of absence, however, since, in theory and fact, most of what we see in a film is absent from us. Fortunately, cinema's mediated "pseudopresence" is not Remes's concern; rather, he focuses on what Timothy Walsh calls "structured absences," which draw attention to a missing something that would normally have been there.4 With these parameters in place, the ensuing chapters offer case studies of four distinct ways that avant-garde filmmakers have willfully used absence. Remes carefully traces the context, function, and effect of these absences with a methodology based on case-by-case interdisciplinary analysis (e.g., neuroscience when called for), "autobiographical and anecdotal" accounts of absence's potential effects (influenced by Vivian Sobchack's work), and "counterfactual thought experiments" to imagine what we're missing and how it might reshape our experience.5 Chapter 1 looks at—or perhaps listens to?—Walter Ruttmann's imageless film Wochenende (Weekend, 1930).6 This city-based sound collage, commissioned by the Berlin Radio Hour, is often analyzed by sound, music, and radio scholars but less so by film theorists—this despite the fact that Ruttmann exhibited Wochenende in theaters and called it a "blind film."7 (Indeed he recorded his sounds with a film camera, leaving the lens cap on.) For Remes, the conservatism of film theory is partly to blame for this inattention; when ocularcentrism predominates, the imageless film is a contradiction. While Remes heralds Wochenende as a radical work of sound art, relating it to such twentieth-century landmarks as the Italian Futurist Luigi Russolo's art of noises and Pierre Schaeffer's musique concrète, the larger question of the chapter is how to categorize and experience Wochenende as cinema.8 Remes argues that the "promiscuously intermedial" Wochenende poses an ontological challenge, prompting reflection on whether the construction or experience of a work determines what we call cinema.9 Remes presents a case for experience: though Wochenende was made on film, being imageless it can (and did from the start) function as a standalone audio record. Thus, we experience it as a film, per a suggestion by Michel Chion, "with reference to a frame, even if an empty one."10 But what is the function of a frame that shows nothing? Remes concludes by suggesting how Wochenende destabilizes the cinematic encounter [End Page 220] and reorients our senses: at times, the blackness of a screen may occupy one's attention; at...

Why Philosophy of Language is Unreliable for Understanding Unreliable Filmic Narration

A typical device in film is to have a character narrating what is going on (sometimes by voice-over), but this narration is not always a reliable guide to the events. According to Maier, distortions may be caused by the narrator’s intent, naivety, use of drugs, and/or cognitive disorder/illness. What is common to these various causes, he argues, is the presence of a point of view, which appears in a movie as shots. While this perspective-based account of unreliability covers most cases, I unpack its methodological consequences and gesture at a possibility that Maier’s analysis overlooks. A narration, I suggest, can be unreliable simply because it is ill-timed with the events shown on screen. In such a case, the distortion is not due to any character’s point of view; rather, it comes from the film medium’s ability to divorce what is seen and what is heard. As a consequence of this mismatch, it is possible to have a reliable narrator but an unreliable narration. Since voice and context of utterance usually match in ordinary speech, I conclude that philosophy of language may be ill-suited to properly understand this particular phenomenon.

We are what we create.

Already in ancient times, people dreamt of becoming creators, and nowadays they are approaching this dream in small but impressive steps. In fiction, the goal of creating an artificial human has already been achieved. Additionally, as a mirror of society, the medium of film offers the opportunity to address current questions and problems of humanity. This paper raises the question of how artificial agents are depicted in over 30 years of film history from 1990 to 2021, and it explores roboethics through the lens of movies, focusing on social humanoid robots.

Exil and the Cinematic Mood of Racism

Exil and the Cinematic Mood of Racism Olivia Landry (bio) Exile is strangely compelling to think about but terrible to experience. —Edward W. Said, "Reflections of Exile" How can cinema recreate the experience of everyday racism? This is the question that motivates this essay, and one that goes beyond mere narrative content. Racism and racist acts have long been portrayed in many different films. This is rather a question about how racism is experienced by those it targets and how this experience translates into the language of cinema, from genre and aesthetics to expression and affective attunement. What is the cinematic mood of racism? Jordan Peele's American horror film Get Out (US, 2017) has received much praise for its allegorical recreation of the experience of racism in liberal white society, specifically the experience of being Black in America. In many ways the first of its kind, Get Out is a film about racism that mobilizes the cinematic genre of horror with its conventions of suspense, jump scares, the fantastical, and slasher violence to portray racism in contemporary America. But the culminating racialized violence of the film and its crest, one that eventually becomes inverted by the main character's successful escape from a rich white family's plot to use his young body to achieve eternal youth, consists chiefly of the true-to-life microaggressions this character, Chris (Daniel Kaluuya), faces vis-à-vis the police and the family. As Isabel Pinedo asserts, "In contrast to most American popular culture, Get Out centers black suffering in a way that neither [End Page 223] renders black people as abject nor mediates this suffering through a white character. The centrality of a black protagonist makes visible the otherwise invisible whiteness of characters (Dyer 1997) in horror film."1 As a point of departure, Get Out provides a notable example of a film's generic assertion of the experience of racism and therefore the possibilities of the cinematic medium to bring visibility to the otherwise invisible whiteness of characters. In this essay I turn to a more recent and lesser-known film, Visar Morina's 2020 Kosovan German film Exil/Exile. It is fair to surmise that what Peele does for the horror film, Morina does for the psychological thriller.2 Distinct in many ways from Get Out, Exil nonetheless similarly captures a cinematic mood of racism. The racism portrayed in Exil is not anti-Black racism and does not directly compare to the murderous threat and detriment evoked in Peele's film. The comparison nonetheless serves as a means of opening up broader reflection on how the experience of racialized discrimination is taken up in different ways in film. Exil presents a nuanced portrayal of a man originally from Kosovo, living and working in a nondescript city of Germany with his German-born wife (played by Sandra Hüller) and their three young children, and whose experience with everyday racism gradually draws out his rage. On numerous occasions, the main character, Xhafer, an Albanian Kosovar (played by Mišel Matičević), futilely attempts to explain to his wife the experience of living with racism in Germany. In an accusatory tone, he offers the following explanation: "You have no idea what it means to be a foreigner in this wannabe sophisticated and deeply dishonest country. Either they treat you with open racism, or they treat you like you are disabled in a manner that makes them feel oh-so-compassionate: 'Oh, you can walk. That's great! And wow, you can also count. Bravo! [he claps] And even better, you don't beat your wife. You are fully integrated!'"3 The directness and anger of Xhafer's words unapologetically lay bare the otherwise mostly implicit racism of contemporary liberal German society portrayed in the film through narrative and form. This essay will explore how Exil generates a mood of racism that underpins Xhafer's words with the power of experience that congeals into a suspenseful thriller. The film opens with an escalation, when implicit racism and bias appear to become more direct and their physical threat heightens. I begin by exploring how the daily experience of racism creates a daunting atmosphere of suffocation...

Verbal Fframe-Advance: Toward a Cinematographic Sentence

Verbal Fframe-Advance:Toward a Cinematographic Sentence Garrett Stewart (bio) Abstract Eerything here depends on the ways narrative prose can be understood to have its own induced motor functions in matters of pace, juxtaposition, overlap, and recurrence. My goal in moving between media is to locate and specify, in the operations of verbal style, the prose counterpart of cinema's twin frames: the big Frame of the moving screen picture, that is, together (always together) with the little frame of its composite photographic imprints, as those are subject to the traditional understanding of "frame-advance" in the spinning past of the celluloid reel in projection. Movies derive at base from the instantaneous replacement of these so-called photograms—and the continuous rearray of their pixel equivalents since—in generating the actual (if invisible) motion on which pictured movement depends. As with syllabic sequence in syntactic perception, within and across sentences, the two scales of screen "action" are in fact all but simultaneous—and functionally inseparable. Hence my heuristic coinage for the comparable momentum at stake in each "time-based" medium: Fframe-advance. Eerything here depends on the ways narrative prose can be understood to have its own induced motor functions in matters of pace, juxtaposition, overlap, and recurrence. My goal in moving between media is to locate and specify, in the operations of verbal style, the prose counterpart of cinema's twin frames: the big Frame of the moving screen picture, that is, together (always together) with the little frame of its composite photographic imprints, as those are subject to the traditional understanding of "frame-advance" in the spinning past of the celluloid reel in projection. Movies derive at base from the instantaneous replacement of these so-called photograms—and the continuous rearray of their pixel equivalents since—in generating the actual (if invisible) motion on which pictured movement depends. As with syllabic sequence in syntactic perception, within and across sentences, the two scales of screen "action" are in fact all but simultaneous—and functionally inseparable. Hence my heuristic coinage for the comparable momentum at stake in each "time-based" medium: Fframe-advance. The issue is not whether cinema can be construed as a language system in its own right, in the sense once influentially pursued by Christian Metz in stressing the condition of film as syntagmatic without having a real syntax.1 Nor is this essay concerned with the visual quotient of mobility as sine qua non in a phenomenology of literature's imaginative actualization by the reading mind.2 Still less is it aimed at the direct or indirect influence of cinema on modes of literary writing following after and from its invention.3 Analysis is directed instead—as much with a mid-nineteenth-century novelist like Herman Melville as with the movie-saturated work of Thomas Pynchon—at a lexical kinetics that can best be apprehended by medial analogy. In this light, even the minimal units both of prose and of celluloid's motored pictures—phonemes and photograms—are put under investigation for the part they take, or, better, play, in the inscription (imprint) of any immersive depiction, on page or screen: a manifestation into which their serial machinations tend at the same time to disappear.4 [End Page 139] Threading the Read At the dawn of the film medium, the cinematograph was a device for both record and retrieval in a single mechanism. Before the lens: light, camera, action, matched behind the lens by their intermittent trace. Later, on the reverse s/trip to the screen within the same apparatus: spool, beam, projected motion. Any imagined cinematography of the sentence is a comparable recording of segmental sequences for the purposes of their own playback. On the page: letters, lexemes, sentences. In reading: phonemes, syllabic patterning, the syntax of sense. None of this is meant to ignore the different "visualization" involved in literature and cinema. Screen image is of course automatic (whether mechanical or electronic) and normally irreversible, whereas prose is always individually paced, both in execution and reception. Yet this distinction has a way of maximizing rather than silencing the interest of any such comparison. "One necessity of movies is that the thread of...