Hungarian Church Research Articles

Spatial and temporal changes in the relationship between church and state in Hungary

Hungary is located in the Carpatho–Pannonian area and has been the interface at which European Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy and Judaism have met and mixed for nearly 500 years. The Hungarian state was founded in the 10th and 11th centuries with Catholic support. This was well before the emergence of the modern Hungarian nation in the 18th and 19th centuries on the basis of a mix with Protestantism. During the latter period, Hungarians were followers of several confessions. In spite of this, the Catholic Church generally managed to retain its politically dominant position until 1946, and the elimination of kingdom. In 1949, the Hungarian state and the churches were officially separated. This was followed by an era of atheist, anticlerical policy by the communist totalitarian regime until 1989. Since then state–church relations have largely conformed to European norms and were based on a division of tasks and cooperation. Churches in Hungary played an important role in maintaining civil society and ideas of national consciousness during the totalitarian communist regime. That is why religious conviction and ecclesiastic affairs have a broader political context here than in the west. In the second half of the 20th century, secularisation accelerated by state support was curbed and reversed due to a religious revival, which took place mainly in rural areas following the change in political regime. The scale of religious pluralism was related to the arrival of people who belonged to non-traditional confessions.

Mission‐Shaped Liturgy

title given to this presentation, Mission-shaped liturgy, is further elaborated by the questions attached to it: 'What liturgy, what languages, and what music?' 'What new forms of ritual/symbols/expression can touch our contemporaries, especially the youngsters?' My reading assumes a tension between this title and the interpreting questions. These questions seem to imply an understanding according to which mission-shaped liturgy is one that is shaped primarily by the context, in other words by the needs and expectations of our contemporaries. tension is between this below and a above approach. My conviction is that the question of mission-shaped liturgy should begin by asking, 'What and whose mission?' main thesis of this paper is that mission-shaped liturgy is liturgy in the service of shaping and nurturing a missional people. Before exploring this thesis, however, the biases and limitations that derive from my context of being a pastor in the Reformed Church in Hungary (RCH) should be reviewed. RCH often refers to itself as being the church of the word (of God). In the church's worship services, the majority of pastors and members consider the proclamation of God's word to be central, and the liturgy as secondary. This situation has had two consequences. First, in the worship services preaching has become almost everything; the service seems to stand or fall on the quality of the sermon. Second, an unhealthy emphasis on the role of the pastor and clericalism has developed in the RCH churches. Janos Pasztor points out, The whole worship service is built on the person, thinking and theology of the minister. (1) Both the centrality of God's word in liturgy and the critique of an unhealthy clericalism are shared by the author of this paper. Another recent characteristic of the RCH is a strong desire to create a uniformed liturgy for the RCH and the Hungarian Reformed churches beyond the boarders of Hungary, in the Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia and Slovakia. This situation is, of course, the consequence of the peace treaty in Trianon after the first world war. A common hymnbook has already been published. In the opinion of the present author, these efforts at uniformity are misguided since they do not take seriously the plurality of contexts in which Hungarian Reformed churches are called to be witnesses of Christ. I am privileged to be a pastor in an urban, housing estate church that was started about sixteen years ago. Gazdagret Reformed Church, while keeping the basic elements of RCH liturgy, has been through some liturgical changes in the last couple of years. It is especially perceptible in the liturgy of the Lord's Supper, and the blended use of old and contemporary songs led by a group of musicians in the services. These rather minor developments count as significant changes in the context of the RCH. It also should be added that our church has been experiencing significant growth parallel to these changes. Having outlined the ecclesial context in which this paper was born, the church as God's missional people now needs to be discussed. This discussion will lead to an adequate understanding of the church's liturgy as it is related to mission. Then some aspects of mission-shaped liturgy will be examined. church as God's missional people Earlier, it was stated that the primary question of a mission-shaped liturgy should be, 'What is mission and whose is the mission that is to shape the church's liturgy?' concept of missio Dei needs to be emphasized at this point. A trinitarian understanding of mission developed along the lines of the Father sending the Son, and the Father and Son sending the Holy Spirit. This is foundational. God is the missionary God; the church takes part in God's mission as it is sent by God into the world. crucial text for this understanding, cited by Lesslie Newbigin several times, is John 20:21: As the Father has sent me, I am sending you. …

The “Strange Acts of God:” The Hermeneutics of Concealment and Revelation in Luther and Shakespeare

Abstract: Martin Luther called himself “God's court‐jester”. He saw history as one of the “masks of God,” and he understood God as hiding Godself often behind the mask of the Devil. Luther developed a paradoxical theology, a theology of the cross, that is surprisingly compatible in certain respects with the paradoxical artistic vision of Shakespeare, especially in Hamlet, King Lear and Measure for Measure. Crucial motifs of Luther's theology—the hidden God, indirect revelation, revelation by concealment, revelation under the opposite, the “strange acts of God,” God's “rearward parts”(posteriora), and suffering (Anfechtungen and melancholy)—resonate with certain latent, even if at times blasphemeous, theological motifs and themes in Shakespeare. They also resonate with the experience of the Lutheran church in Hungary both in its past under communism and today in post‐communist Hungary.

An example of ethnic exogamy and identity: The Serbs in Budapest and its surroundings

This paper briefly discuses the Serbian ethnic community in Hungary, emphasizing the change that came about in the 20th century. Namely, the community started to change from an extremely closed, in-group oriented to an open community that allows mixed marriages. Some numerical/statistical data based on censuses and data from the Orthodox Church in Hungary are provided, as well as the Serbian attitudes toward the mixed marriages, and their influences on ethnic identity preservation. Finally, the paper discusses the identity problem of children from such mixed marriages - their self-determination and how other members of the Serbian community relate to them.

A Survival Liturgy - Continuity and Changes in the Processional Practice of Zagreb Cathedral from the 14th to the 18th Century

The reform of the Council of Trent made great influence on the liturgical development of all Europe. That was also the fact in Hungary: in 1630 the local synod of Nagyszombat accepted the introduction of the Tridentine rite into the Hungarian Church. Nevertheless some of dioceses - existed more independently - protested against this decision and insisted on the continuation of their own medieval traditions. Among these dioceses Zagreb was the greatest “Protestant”. The cathedral itself guarded his medieval tradition till 1788. Through this largely documented processional practise of Zagreb Cathedral (ten manuscripts and one printed processional from the 14th up to the 18th centuries) one can follow the particularities of a liturgy preserved isolated: the basically remained liturgical chants were influenced by some new practise, mainly simplifications but additions as well.

Die Kerkhervorming in Hongarye

The Reformation in HungaryThis article focuses on a description of the Reformation in Hungary. Research into the historical backgrounds of the South-African clerical family Papp (of which the progenitor, the Reverend Kálmán Papp, is the only Hungarian immigrant to date to have become a minister in the reformed churches of South Africa), provided the stimulus for the exploration of this topic. The article briefly describes the political and ecclesiastical circumstances in Hungary prior to the Reformation, the course thereof, with specific reference to the most prominent Hungarian reformers, the outcome of the Reformation, as well as the birth of the Reformed Church of Hungary. The influence of Heinrich Bullinger, whose Confessio Helvetica Posterior was accepted as an official article of faith of this church in 1567, is dealt with in more detail. The article concludes with a few cursory remarks on the effects of the ecclesiastical and political developments in Hungary on the church in the sixteenth century and also provides some statistical data with regard to the present situation.

Between Islam and Catholicism: Bosnian Franciscan Missionaries in Turkish Hungary, 1584-1716

The work of the Bosnian Franciscan missionaries represents a peculiar episode in the history of Catholic renewal in Central Europe. By studying these developments, we may become acquainted with the manner in which the various denominations and nationalities coexisted in the Carpathian basin. In the following, I shall examine the work of the Bosnian missionaries on the basis of documents preserved in the Rome archives of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of Faith (de Propaganda Fide), a body of cardinals founded by Pope Gregory XV in 1622 to direct Catholic missions throughout the world. Until recently most of the documents used in this study were unknown; they are soon to be published.1 After the battle of Mohacs (1526) and the fall of Buda (1541), the middle third of the medieval kingdom of Hungary was occupied by the Turks. Large numbers of southern Slavs moved into the Turkish-occupied areas of Hungary. While many of these people were Catholics, overall the Catholic Church in Hungary was significantly weakened by the effects of the Reformation. The Catholic bishops were appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor acting as the king of Hungary. The Emperor was the main enemy of the Turkish Sultan, and thus the Hungarian bishops were refused access to the Turkish territories. After the Reformation and the Turkish conquest the fate of the Catholic Church became increasingly uncertain in Turkish Hungary. For this reason, the arrival of Bosnian Franciscan friars from the Balkans had a great effect upon the lives of Hungarian, Croatian, Romanian, and Bosnian Catholics living in the European provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Compared with other Catholic priests working in the Turkish sovereign area, the Bosnian Franciscans established a far more intimate relationship with the Ottoman authorities. This special relationship, where it led the Bosnians to persecute their rivals within the Catholic Church using Turkish military force, rightly outraged the Ragusan, Italian, and Hungarian priests who were the potential victims. Still, it did provide the Franciscans with far greater room for manoeuvre in their missionary work.2 Franciscan friars appeared in Bosnia at the end of the thirteenth century. They were given the task of challenging the Bogomil heretic church. The Pope declared the whole of Bosnian Kingdom to be a missionary territory and appointed the Franciscans as local inquisitors. Friars arrived in Bosnia from many different countries: English, German, Italian, and Aragonese Franciscans converted the Bosnian heretics, and here too the famous inquisitor, Saint Jacob of Marche, worked. During the golden age of the order in Bosnia in the middle of the fifteenth century, Franciscan friars were living in about sixty monasteries throughout the country. Owing to the popularity of the Bogomil heresy, the number of Catholic secular priests in the country was very small. Thus, contrary to the traditional ecclesiastical model, according to their papal privileges the Franciscans in Bosnia also worked as parish priests. From the sixteenth century on, they continued to occupy the parishes also in Turkish Hungary.3 The Bosnian Franciscans and the Turkish Occupation The end of the golden age of the Bosnian kingdom and the Franciscan order in Bosnia came with the occupation of the country by the Ottomans, which was completed by 1463. The Turkish occupation divided the Franciscan order in Bosnia into two parts. One part fell under Turkish rule (its territory grew constantly with the advance of the Turks), while the other part remained part of the Christian world. Following the incorporation of Bosnia into the Sultan's empire, local Franciscans stayed on rather than fleeing. The Turkish administration tolerated and even assisted the Bosnian Franciscans because it needed them in order to keep the peace and to control the tax-paying Catholic populations and prevent their emigration. …

Calvinism on the Frontier, 1600–1660: International Calvinism and the Reformed Church in Hungary and Transylvania. By Graeme Murdock. Oxford Historical Monographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. xiv + 359 pp. $80.00 cloth.

Calvinism on the Frontier, 1600–1660: International Calvinism and the Reformed Church in Hungary and Transylvania. By Graeme Murdock. Oxford Historical Monographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. xiv + 359 pp. $80.00 cloth.

Are the Swedish Parish Examination Records A Unique Phenomenon?

This paper introduces the possibility of comparing Hungarian parish records to Swedish Parish Examination Records from an educational point of view. The focus is on a presentation of one particular document of a Hungarian Catholic priest in a small village from the early 19th century. The record keeps track of the reading and writing skills of parishioners. This pilot study aims to show that there might be similarities explored between the unique Swedish parish examination records of the Lutheran congregation and the Hungarian Catholic church archive sources, pointing out the common roots of the Christian teaching all across Europe.

Calvinism on the Frontier 1600-1660: International Calvinism and the Reformed Church in Hungary and Transylvania

This is the first book to examine one of Europe's largest Protestant communities in Hungary and Transylvania. It highlights the place of the Hungarian Reformed church in the international Calvinist world, and reveals the impact of Calvinism on Hungarian politics and society. Calvinism attracted strong support in Hungary and Transylvania, where one of the largest Reformed churches was established by the early seventeenth century. Understanding of this Hungarian Reformed church remains the most significant missing element in the analysis of European Calvinism. The Hungarian Reformed church survived on narrow ground between the Habsburgs and Turks, thanks to support from Transylvanias princes and local nobles. They worked with Reformed clergy to maintain contact with western co-religionists, to combat confessional rivals, to improve standards of education and to impose moral discipline. However, there were also tensions within the church over further reforms of public worship and church government, and over the impact of puritanism. This book examines the development of the Hungarian church within the international Calvinist community, and the impact of Calvinism on Hungarian politics and society.

Calvinism on the Frontier, 1600-1600: International Calvinism and the Reformed Church in Hungary and Transylvania. By GRAEME MURDOCK (Oxford: Clarendon P., 2000; pp. 359. 48)

Journal Article Calvinism on the Frontier, 1600–1600: International Calvinism and the Reformed Church in Hungary and Transylvania. By Graeme Murdock (Oxford: Clarendon P., 2000; pp. 359. £48) Get access William G. Naphy William G. Naphy University of Aberdeen Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar The English Historical Review, Volume 116, Issue 469, November 2001, Pages 1223–1224, https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/116.469.1223 Published: 01 November 2001

Characteristics of the northernmost population ofRhinolophus ferrumequinum in the Carpathian Basin

Roost utilisation byRhinolophus ferrumequinum (Schreber, 1774) was investigated between 1984 and 1998 in north-eastern Hungary. Exploration of summer and winter roosts, monitoring and bat-banding were implemented to find movements between the colonies. Data on roost utilisation by this species in south-eastern Slovakia, collected in a similar way, were included for comparison. Twenty-two marked bats were recaptured. The studied bats created nursery colonies in Hungarian churches and moved to Slovakian mines and caves to hibernate in winter. The population used two main hibernacula, two large nursery roosts and one temporary roost but several other roosts were also visited. The area occupied by the population was 5180 km2.R. ferrumequinum living in SE Slovakia and NE Hungary formed probably a separate population on the northern edge of the species range. This population is a part of the metapopulation of the species.

Calvinism on the Frontier, 1600-1660: International Calvinism and the Reformed Church in Hungary and Transylvania. By Graeme Murdock. Oxford Historical Monographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. xiii, 359 pp. Notes. Bibliography. Index. Table. Map. $80.00, hard bound.

Calvinism on the Frontier, 1600-1660: International Calvinism and the Reformed Church in Hungary and Transylvania. By Graeme Murdock. Oxford Historical Monographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. xiii, 359 pp. Notes. Bibliography. Index. Table. Map. $80.00, hard bound. - Volume 60 Issue 3

Civil Society and Religion in Post-Communist Hungary

How can the churches in Hungary today help in building civil society without becoming politicised or submerged in a secular world? This essay focuses on the different roles and activities of larger and smaller churches in Hungarian civil society, especially Catholic congregations and smaller communities, new religious movements and groups, the "official church," and the "civil church," Churches and religious communities in Hungary are still too rigid in their institutional forms to become an organic part of civil society. To preserve their unique calling churches have to play the role as a participant of a special form of civil society--the "contrast-society." Only churches institutionalized in an appropriate way will be able to accommodate civil society without being assimilated by it. Thus, churches can become part of civil society mainly in the form of a dialogue. Hungarian churches, religious groups, and movements are just at the beginning of a promising process.

The Catholic Church in Hungary: A Case of Remodernisation?

The title of my paper contains a question mark against the word remodernisation. The word implies that the Catholic Church in Hungary is moving towards a more modern status, and that in so doing it is reviving a former status which was modem in some way. But in an age of postmodernism this concept is a question mark in itself. If we may take the ecclesiology of the Second Vatican Council as modernity within the Church, the aggiomamento it represented was overwhelmed by the revolution of western society in the later 1960s, to the extent that the Church necessarily failed to keep pace with contemporary orientations and disorientations in those societies. From a global point of view the aggiomamento was perhaps part of the 1960s revolution since it aimed at nothing less than making monolithic structures flexible and focusing on the impact of the individual and local groups on social life. But in the eyes of these individuals the Church lost much of its authority, along with all such structures which claimed objective power. If there had not been the social commitment of the Church, the option for the poor, it would probably have lost any reason for existence in the eyes of large parts of the laity. What remained of the Church as a positive incitement was the quasi-existentialist 'engagement' which became the main or even only source of meaning in society. I myself am not quite sure what 'postmodern' means, but I think it has something to do with the delusion of 1968 commitment to battle for a renewed society 'from below', from an individualistic and sometimes utopian social point of view. This led to an eclectic looking back to tradition: premodern values and forms were interpreted from a personal perspective. This combination is what gave the postmodern attitude its aesthetic and spiritual, even mystical shape. To be sure, when all this happened the communist bloc was never included. Of course the Universal Church was concerned with what happened in the communist countries, as demonstrated by the visits to these countries by Cardinal K6nig, as well as by the Vatican's Ostpolitik.' But inside these countries there was no possibility of taking part in the changes in ecclesiology and society. A Czech intellectual told me shortly after the demonstrations in Prague in February 1988 that 'We are not striving for socialism with a human face (the Dubcek formula) but rather for capitalism with a human face'; but this was at a time when capitalism had already begun to be questioned in the West, not least in the papal encyclical letter Sollicitudo rei socialis of 1988.

Mille anni di storia dell'Arciabbazia di Pannonhalma ed. by József Pál and Ádám Somorjai

BOOK REVIEWS265 thor, but it is rewarding in giving one a comprehensive and continual narrative of the story of Western monasticism from the time of Benedict until the present . One can only hope that it will stimulate some contemporary monastic historians to produce a comparable study in English. Joel Rippinger, O.S.B. Marmion Abbey Aurora, Illinois Mille anni di storia dell'Arciabbazia di Pannonhalma. Edited by József Pal and Ádám Somorjai. (Rome and Pannonhalma: Accademia d'Ungheria in Roma and METEM. 1997. Pp. 233.) Since 1989 a growing number of Hungarian scholars have turned their attention to church history. The International Society for the Encyclopedia of Hungarian Church History (METEM) and the Archabbey of Pannonhalma have played an important role in the publication of a number of recent monographs on church history. The volume at hand was published to commemorate the Archabbey of Pannonhalma's millennium. Following the introduction, written by the Pope and the Archabbot, the essays are grouped in five sections. The first section deals with the history of the origins of the Archabbey, with special attention given to the missionary activities of St. Adalbert (Vojtech) (956?-997). These essays are based entirely on secondary sources by authors who are admittedly not specialists on the topic. The second section of the book consists of a series of essays on early extant documents found in the archives of the Archabbey. Three essays deserve mention : GáborThoroczkay's is a detailed historiographical essay about the diploma of King (saint) Stephen (1000-1038). It describes the controversies played out in the analysis of this fundamental document to the Archabbey's early history. László Veszprémy's essay is a study of the earliest extant (eleventh-century) inventory of the Archabbey's library,written between 1093 and 1095. Veszprémy shows that Pannonhalma, in contrast to contemporaneous European monasteries ,had a rather modest library. Edit Madas's is an essay about references to Saint Benedict in the sermons and legends of medieval Hungary. The author analyzes a number of hitherto unpublished sermons from the archives of the Archabbey. The third section consists of articles about the relationship between Italian and Hungarian Benedictines. The essay by Géza Mihályi is a memoir in which he sketches the foundation of the Liceum Dante Alighieri, which operated in the Archabbey between 1939 and 1948. The essay is based entirely on personal recollections (no sources cited), and leaves many topics unexplored. The fourth section consists of essays in praise of one of the monks, Geliert Békes, who contributes to this volume. Father Békes was the publisher of Vigi- 266book reviews lia, a periodical publication that played an important role in the community of Hungarian expatriates in the postwar years. These essays seem out of place in this volume. The fifth section contains an essay on the architecture of the monastery. Unfortunately , this essay suffers from its superficiality. The appendix contains good-quality photographs of some of the charters addressed in this volume and details of some parts of the monastic complex. The exact purpose of this volume remains nebulous to the reviewer. It is not a collection of scholarly works, though it contains some. It is not a collection of personal reminiscences. It is not a coffee-table book, despite the nice photographs and the glossy paper. The uneven caliber of the essays does little justice to the thousand-year history of the Archabbey of Pannonhalma. PONGRÁCZ SeNNYEY Bradley University Spazi efigure lungo la storia dei Servi di santa Maria (secoli XIII-XX). By Franco Andrea Dal Pino. [Italia Sacra: Studi e documenti di storia ecclesiastica , Vol. 55.] (Rome: Herder Editrice e Librería. 1997. Pp. xxx, 760. Lire 188.000.) Franco Andrea Dal Pino's historical research and publications on the Servite Order have extended over fifty years, making him the dominant Servite historian of the last half of this century. This volume, published in the Herder's "Italia Sacra" series, collects twenty-one of his more important writings on the history of the Servite Order. He first lists the twenty-one articles, indicating where they were first published, and he notes if any changes have been...

De l'oppression à la liberté: L'Église en Hongrie, 1945-1992. Chronique des événements ordinaires et extraordinaires, témoins et témoignages by Paul G. Bozsóky and László Lukács

130BOOK REVIEWS erences to the notorious Crystal Night pogrom of 1938 against theJews and ignores the churches' total failure to assist their feUow victims on this occasion. No mention is made of the complete absence of episcopal protest. Huttner's study is thus conditioned by the continuing desire of the German Catholic scholars to portray the Church Struggle as a heroic defense of CathoUc interests . By showing how British journaUsts ofthe 1930's upheld this view, Huttner glosses over the moral failings of German CathoUcism, and thus presents too partial a picture. In summary, this voluminous tone must be seen as yet another example of the German CathoUcs' exercise in self-justification. John S. Conway Vancouver De l'oppression à la liberté: L'Église en Hongrie, 1945-1992. Chronique des événements ordinaires et extraordinaires, témoins et témoignages. By Paul G. Bozsóky and László Lukács. [PoUtiques & Chrétiens.] (Paris: Beauchesne . 1993. Pp. vi, 381. 198 F.) In this volume one finds a short overview of the history of the Church in Hungary after 1945. Several essays and testimonies pubUshed here help us to understand the vicissitudes of the CathoUcs in Hungary before and during the Communist regime, and in the time of the poUtical changes about the year 1989. The first part—a chronicle of the time—is written by the two authors. The first, Paul G. Bozsóky, a Franciscan Father who Uves in Paris, has entitied his essay: "The long night of the Hungarian Christians" and deals with the period between 1945 and 1986. The second, László Lukács, a Piarist Father who Uves in Budapest, has written about the period after 1986; his tide is: "From oppression to freedom," similar to the title of the whole book. A better title for the book could have been: "From freedom to freedom." In the second part of the volume one finds some testimonies. Two historic personaUties,Vilmos Apor,bishop of Györ.who was kuled by a Soviet soldier in 1945, and Cardinal Josef Mindszenty, the "two columns of God's presence," are presented by Bozsóky. A third author of the book, a CathoUc journalist, István Elmer,has pubUshed here interviews with five personaUties persecuted in these times: Vendel Endrédy, abbot of the Cistercians; István Tabódy, a CathoUc priest who organized clandestine priestly ordinations; Pius Halász, a Cistercian monk; György Bulányi, a Piarist father, the founder of his movement, and Agnes Timar, a Cistercian nun and founder who started with the monastic Ufe in the time of persecution and whose community survived the clandestinity. In the appendix there are two chronologies edited by Bozsóky. Five geographical maps show mostly the borders of dioceses. BOOK REVIEWS131 It is rare to have soUd information about the evolution of Hungary in principal languages. This is a reason why this volume is to be appreciated. The authors as weU as the pubUsher are aware that some time needs to elapse for the historian to make a scholarly examination; so in this report they wanted to give only a basic evaluation of the facts enumerated from the point of view of contemporaries . The interviews enable us to have an insight into these years and to understand the conditions of Christians under Communist rule. The rawness of this report and the lack of detaüed analysis as weU as imprecise formulations do not reduce the merits of the volume. It is important to reaUze that in the period between 1945 and 1964 three-fourths of the Bishops' Conference were persecuted: two of them killed, two of them deported, fourteen imprisoned. Three hundred and sixty diocesan priests (10% of the total) were imprisoned or deported, as weU as 940 reUgious priests (66%), 200 reUgious brothers (16%), and 2,200 sisters and nuns (22%). Adam Somorjai, O.S.B. Collegio di SantAnselmo Rome American The American Questfor the Primitive Church. Edited by Richard T. Hughes. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 1988. Pp. ix, 257. $14.95 paperback.) The Primitive Church in the Modern World. Edited by Richard T. Hughes. (Urbana : University of Illinois Press. 1995. Pp. xvUi, 229. $14.95 paperback.) Trying to transform...

Western Complexes of Hungarian Churches of the Early Eleventh Century

The church organisation of Hungary under its first king, Saint Stephen (ruled between 997-1038), resulted in the building of the first monasteries (e.g. Pannonhalma),- cathedrals (e.g. Kalocsa, Veszprém and Pécs) and provostships (e.g. Székesfehérvár). These churches mostly disappeared during the centuries, but their spatial organisation can be partly reconstructed. One of their common features is the complexity of the western parts. On the one hand, various architectural types can be found (western apse with crypt, transversal mass with towers, two-tower façade), but origins of an architectural tradition can also be detected. The main element of this tradition, complementary to former research, is not the westwork, but the presence of two western towers which will be a

The Lutheran Church in Hungary: Coming to terms with the past

(1994). The Lutheran Church in Hungary: Coming to terms with the past. Religion, State and Society: Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 333-338.

Hungary: The Church Gets Its Schools Back

Until the 1940s the church in Hungary had very many schools, and a large proportion of primary and middle schools were church institutions. In 1948 the denominational (and also the private) schools were secularized.