Hungarian Church Research Articles

Debate on the Initiatives of the Faculty of Theology in Debrecen. The Theological Education Designed by Sándor Csikesz and Imre Révész

This study examines the reform initiatives for theological education in the Reformed Church in Hungary during the early 20th century, focusing on the period between 1912 and 1940. Central to this examination are the reform plans developed by Sándor Csikesz and Imre Révész, particularly their 1937 draft aimed at unifying pastoral training. The research contextualizes these reforms within the broader historical and ecclesiastical framework, analysing the efforts and challenges faced by the Faculty of Theology in Debrecen. The study highlights the various debates and controversies sparked by the proposed reforms, particularly the opposition from other theological academies and the broader church community. Through detailed exploration of historical documents, this paper sheds light on the motivations behind the reforms, the resistance they encountered, and their lasting impact on theological education within the Hungarian Reformed Church. Keywords: curriculum, Reformed Church in Hungary, theological education, pastoral training, reforms

“Unity and Refinement”. Paths and Quests for Organizational and Ceremonial Unity in the First Half of the 20th Century

This article explores the efforts of the Hungarian Reformed Church in the first half of the 20th century to achieve uniformity and refinement in its worship practices. The desire for a unified Hungarian Reformed worship service had been a hallmark of previous centuries, leading to a long journey of development in the 20th century. The standardization of the liturgical praxis aimed to create a sense of shared identity and eliminate historical variations in regional worship practices and customs. The movement for liturgical unity had been ongoing for centuries, with earlier attempts including church district agendas published in the 19th century. The publication of the Liturgical Book [Istentiszteleti Rendtartás] in 1930, which is the first official Agenda for the whole Reformed Church in Hungary, marked a culmination of efforts towards liturgical unity. The paper highlights the tension between achieving uniformity and preserving diversity within a religious tradition. Keywords: liturgics, history of liturgy in the Reformed Church in Hungary, liturgical book, 20th century, worship practices

Peculiarities and Difficulties of Processing Church Collaboration

The purpose of this study is to show how the church public received the process of uncovering the past in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Hungary in 2005, which is centred on the secret agent activities of those church members who collaborated with the communist-socialist system. One of the objectives of the political authorities was to eliminate, or at least weaken, the religiousness and the internal activity and social influence of the churches. The presentation and critique of the fact-finding work will focus on the testimonies of those who, as descendants of those involved, have been closely confronted with the disturbing revelations and who have seen the process of fact-finding from a particular perspective. The study points out the complexity and difficulties of fact-finding work, without losing sight of the conviction that reconciliation with the past is always justified. A unique feature of research on church collaboration is the examination from the perspective of descendants, which is the focus of this study. Keywords: uncovering the past, collaboration, secret agent activity, transgenerational effect, confession, absolution

The Eagle’s Nest Effect in the Pastoral Career

The research involved surveying active pastors of the Reformed Church in Hungary through an online tool between 2 May and 18 June 2023. In our current analysis, we included pastors with active status in Hungary (N = 681). In this study, we looked at the mental health of those in their first five years of ministry compared to those who have served longer. In terms of well-being, there is a higher proportion of pastors at risk among those who have served for 1–5 years. In this essay, we explore the possible causes of this phenomenon and formulate hypotheses for further research. We discuss the challenges and complexities faced by pastors in contemporary society, highlighting the changing roles and expectations within the church. The findings suggest that pastors often experience fatigue, emotional challenges, and conflicting expectations. The diversity of pastoral roles, evolving societal norms, and the pastor’s evolving identity contribute to the complexity of their responsibilities. This paper identifies different phases in the pastor’s journey, from initial exposure to pastoral life to assuming the role professionally. It emphasizes that becoming a pastor is not just learning a role but a transformation of one’s identity and a continuous integration of faith into everyday life. Keywords: pastor, early career, well-being, quantitative survey

The role of the Rev. Albert Bereczky (1893–1966) in the Anti-German Resistance and in the Rescue of People (1944–45)

Albert Bereczky, the pastor of the Reformed Congregation on Pozsonyi Street (Budapest), joined the anti-German resistance after the German invasion of Hungary on 19 March 1944 and became one of its most committed activists. His friendship with Zoltán Tildy, President of the Smallholders Party, led Bereczky into the resistance movement, and he helped him to organize one of the main bodies of the movement, the Hungarian Front. Miklós Mester, State Secretary at the Ministry of Religion and Public Education, and Ottó Komoly, President of the Hungarian Zionist Federation, also became important associates. It is mainly in the light of the memoirs and diaries of the latter two that our study gives an insight into Bereczky’s multifaceted and varied activities, the main elements of which were liaising between different resistance groups and hiding those who had been persecuted on racial or political grounds. Bereczky also played a major role in the Reformed Church in Hungary’s outreach to Jews, for example, in organizing the ultimately unsuccessful public church protest against the deportations. Keywords: Albert Bereczky, Holocaust, German occupation of Hungary (1944–45), anti-German resistance movement, Zoltán Tildy, rescue of Jews80 évvel ezelőtt Bereczky

The Catholic Church in Hungary and Romania during the Communist Dictatorship: A Comparative Analysis

The structure and cultural characteristics of a society are, in the words of Joseph Schumpeter, “like metal” – they bend and melt but do not readily evaporate. My comparative analysis confirms the diagnosis that the everyday presence of dictatorship cannot be adequately described by the standard top-down models of ideologically driven communist power. The substantive differences in developments between Hungary and Romania suggest that external power is only part of the construct, however rigid the hegemonic structure. By looking at the reactions caused by similar effects in different contexts, it becomes clear what has an impact on what. The relationship of the churches to the state in the countries under study includes similarities and differences shaped by distinct historical trajectories that are partly structural and partly situational. In terms of circumstances, Romania’s Orthodox pattern regarding the relationship between the state and the church also determined the relationship with other denominations and sealed the fate of Greek Orthodox Catholics. The measures taken against Roman Catholics, although more or less the same as in Hungary, also tended more towards the state-church model. However, this feature was not the primary cause of the different impact in Romania compared to Hungary. This is because, just as the relationship between church and state differed from country to country, so did the relationship of the churches to their own “national” societies. Further, no matter how tempting it might be to consider the Catholic Church a closed entity, the comparison clarifies that neither the hierarchical division nor the same (Catholic) norm made behaviour uniform. The differences arising from local configurations of the single norm grew more and more evident in the 1950s. All this suggests that state and church strategies and actions were shaped more by the conflict of contexts and pressures to comply than by the tension between the scope of action and the constraints: the differences between Romania and Hungary are explained by the different contexts and the cross-generational ecclesiastical and social patterns A greater historical understanding explains how bishops in Hungary, in line with previous conditions and established practice, hoped for quasi-freedom in church operations through a “partnership” with the state while the Roman Catholic Church in Romania has been operating under exlex conditions for four decades. That does not mean that a rational-legal approach on its own is the key to understanding what has occurred. Under a dictatorship, we can identify deviance, excesses, abuses and arbitrary actions in relation to the law. However, these “models” can only be understood in the context of processes that transcend political history. The behaviour of the authorities in Bucharest towards the Catholic Church has been dramatic compared to other countries under Soviet influence. With the arrests of Áron Márton and Anton Durcovici, the public hierarchy appointed by the Holy See ceased to exist. The elimination of dioceses by the state was also a unique feature. The resistance organised by the Jesuits and Franciscans, with the support of the faithful, successfully paralysed the ecclesiastical administration, which had been put in place due to state intervention after the arrest of Áron Márton. This process was largely due to the church’s strengthened social embeddedness in previous years and its successful adaptation of strategies developed to cope with its minority status. Over the centuries, the Catholic Church in Transylvania has faced a series of challenges that have threatened its very existence. These pressures have also shaped the thinking of its clergy and its relationship with its faithful. The recoveries from crises have led to innovative and flexible adaptation strategies, making the local church “tough” and thus contributing to its management of the next crisis. The mentality of the church, which was minimally domesticated or determined by the secular power, showed fewer Josephine traits than in Hungary. The relationship between church and state tended towards the passive model, while the relationship between church and society tended towards the active model. The Catholic Church’s double minority status in Transylvania during the Communist years – minority as a Hungarian and minority as a Catholic – created an alternative society that did not allow it to abstain entirely from politics. Beyond individual choices, this also made its confrontational position more flexible and its submission more moderate.

John Paul II and Opposition Activities in Soviet Bloc Countries

The purpose of this article is to present the role of Pope John Paul II in the overthrow of the Communist system in Central Europe based primarily on the scientific literature on the subject and the published documents. The author’s attention is focused, for obvious reasons, on Poland, as well as on neighbouring countries with a significant number of Catholics within their borders: Czechoslovakia, Hungary and the Republic of Lithuania within the Soviet Union. John Paul II’s visit to the People’s Republic of Poland on 2–10 June 1979 went down in history as “nine days that changed the world”. The pilgrimage was the catalyst for changes in social awareness in Poland, leading to the creation of Solidarity in 1980. In the following years, the pope sustained the spirit of resistance in Polish society during the harsh period of martial law and beyond. Under his inspiration, the church played a mediating role in the 1989 Round Table talks between the authorities and the opposition. The election of Karol Wojtyła, a cardinal from a neighbouring country, and the subsequent activities of the new pope had a profound impact on the revival of the religious life of Catholics in Czechoslovakia and Lithuania. Breaking the barrier of fear resulted in more substantial involvement of Catholics in opposition activities. The revival of the Church in Hungary was less successful, but the personality and teaching of John Paul II encouraged Catholics in that country, too, in opposition activities against the Communist regime.

Das Netzwerk der ungarländischen Studenten in Basel im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. Unbekannte Beziehungen in den Hochschulschriften

Network research can be used to reconstruct personal relationships in the early modern period. A very good source for such research is provided by the entries in memorial books (or alba amicorum). An analysis of the memorial books in the Inscriptiones Alborum Amicorum database reveals that Professor Johann Heinrich Fries of Zurich had very intensive contacts with students from Hungary. However, it is possible to reconstruct contact systems not only on the basis of alba amicorum, but also on the basis of thesis, because the paratexts included in these booklets contain references of a wide variety of contact types, including teacher–student, student–student, and patron–student relationships. The University of Basel played an important role in the development of the Reformed Church in Hungary in the early modern period, but no research has yet been done into the paratexts of the thesis summaries published in Basel. The present study has therefore focused in reconstructing several connections that were unknown up until now: the Ruland family’s links with Bratislava/Pozsony/Pressburg and Basel, and the friendship between Ferenc Paris of Pápai and Jacob Högger. It also emerged that it was customary to thank Johann Martin Weiss, the leader of the Basel students, in the thesis summaries.

Parallelizing Bible texts: Developing the database of the Unified Bible Reader online application

The Unified Bible Reader (UBR), developed by the Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary, aims to facilitate the parallel reading of various Bible versions, including original language editions and antique as well as modern translations. This paper outlines the creation of a parallelized database of Bible texts through a four-step process: digitization, data cleaning, integration, and parallelization. The paper discusses the inherent challenges of the digitization phase which involves the conversion of non-digital texts to digital format, primarily using optical character recognition (OCR) technology. Data cleaning focuses on correcting OCR errors and resolving format inconsistencies. Integration, that is, importing text into a unified database, addresses issues with rare cases of text division. Parallelization involves aligning textual units across different versions, accounting for variations in verse numbering and verse boundaries. The development of software tools enabled semi-automatic and manual alignment. The application may serve as a basis for more refined text splitting and the addition of annotations to support advanced textual analysis and translation comparisons. The UBR project marks a significant step towards comprehensive, accessible parallel Bible reading and analysis.

Crafting a professional teacher learner through models of learning and positive psychological coaching tools

The important question of pedagogy and positive psychology in the 21st-century is how to facilitate educators in becoming professionals with successful self-concepts, capable of supporting and inspiring their students, coping with stress and burnout, and facing the challenges of their careers with autonomous, resilient strategies. Therefore, the main topic of the questionnaire conducted by Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary is teacher motivation and coaching. This paper discusses a specific aspect of the theoretical and methodological background provided by the literature sources for compiling the questionnaire. Our current analysis encompasses McClelland’s “Theory of Human Motives”, Bateson’s Logical Levels of Learning, and Dilts’ NeuroLogical Levels of Change. Central to our exploration is the significance of reflection in teacher learning, leading to an analysis of Korthagen’s frameworks, such as ALACT, the Onion Model, and the Core Reflection model. Simons and Ruijters’ Model of Professional Learner Identity illuminates the relationship between learning and professionalism in teaching, accentuating the importance of lifelong learning. Ultimately, our endeavour is to comprehend the intricacies of motivating teacher learning by synthesizing insights from various theories, models, and coaching tools to nurture proficient and inspired professional teacher learners.

A Károli Gáspár Református Egyetem megalapításának története

The History of the Foundation of Károli Gáspár Reformed University. Plans to found a Hungarian Reformed university in Transylvania were conceived during the reigns of princes Gábor Bethlen (1622) and Ákos Barcsai (1658, then at the initiative of János Apáczai Csere), but unfortunately external circumstances prevented the establishment of such a university. At the end of the 18th century, the idea was raised again in Pest (József Vay, 1796). However, the circumstances made it only possible to establish a joint Evangelical-Reformed theological faculty (Pál Török, Theological Academy of Pest, 1855). In 1993, under the more favourable conditions of the regime change, the longed-for university could be founded, with the merger of the Theological Academy and the Teachers’ College of Nagykőrös and the establishment of a faculty of humanities in Budapest. Our study presents the circumstances, processes, debates, and key personalities behind the founding of the university 30 years ago. Keywords: Theological Academy of Pest, Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary, Bishop Loránt Hegedűs, Christian higher education, history of the Reformed Church in Hungary

Radiocarbon Dating of Cremated bone samples from the Site of the Hungarian Church at Pauca, Sibiu County

Archaeological research in the site of Pauca - Hungarian Church started in 2010, and between 2012-2023 has uncovered over 116 graves, some being simple cremation graves with a deposit of remains in the urn, others being double graves (with two urns) and one being a mixed double grave (incineration and inhumation). The dating of the five samples from the cemetery would suggest that the beginnings of the Păuca cemetery is contemporary with the late Germanic period (Gepids) and the early Avar period. Admitting that it is more accurate to date closer to the upper limit of the range (7th century), the cemetery at Pauca could be connected with historical events that occurred between 567 and 630, i.e. the establishment and consolidation of Avar power in the Pannonian-Transylvanian space. The C14 dating of the cremated bones from the Păuca cemetery (Sibiu county) reopens the discussion on the need for more samples of C14 data from the cremation cemeteries attributed cemetery to the so-called Mediaș group and simultaneously may represent a turning point in the evaluation of the chronology of the period between 6th and 8th centuries A.D.

Einige Fragen der Kirchenverwaltung des mittelalterlichen ungarischen Königtums

The study deals with four problems of medieval Hungarian church law and church history. Firstly, it describes the debates surrounding the formation and status of the archbishopric of Kalocsa, emphasising the missionary nature of the early archbishopric; secondly, it discusses the relationship between archdeaconries associated with a provostship and collegiate chapters, stressing the primacy of archdeaconries; thirdly, it examines the question of the Eigenbistümer in Hungary, agreeing with the view that the bishopric of Nitra was initially such a church. In the fourth place, it interprets a sentence of a fourteenth-century Hungarian chronicle, stating that Gregory of Bicske, the elected Archbishop of Esztergom (1298–1303), was only the governor (procurator seu administrator) of the Archbishopric of Esztergom.

Religious and Ecclesiastical Media in the Hungarian Electronic Media Ecosystem

Many academic works examine religious media institutions and media content producers operating in European countries, including Hungary, but most of them do so in an isolated way, mostly focusing on a particular content producer. The present study aims to provide a comprehensive picture of the operation of religious content producers in Hungary in a broader context, which considers the overall media system from a legal and economic point of view. First, we give a short retrospective overview about the history of Hungarian church press. Afterwards we examine the current legal framework for audiovisual regulation in Hungary. The conclusions are based on data obtained using three different methodologies. We have analyzed the freely accessible records of the Hungarian media authority (NMHH) and legislation, conducted a total of 6 in-depth interviews and an analysis of the content produced by each media outlet. The results of our research showed that in Hungary there is a disconnect between the concepts of church and religious media and that churches have hardly any comprehensive strategy to exploit the potential of digitalization. It can be concluded that church-owned media with religious content cannot be included in the present legal and economic framework without problems. Finally, an important question is whether and how church media are adapting to the changed environment. Our case studies show that the picture is mixed in this respect, because there is a lack of a coherent strategy among the actors on how service providers can adapt as effectively as possible to the new technological consumption patterns.

Hungarian Clergywomen’s Careers in the Church

After half a century of formal equality regarding ministry in Protestant churches, female leaders have become increasingly common in Protestant churches in Western Europe and North America. However, in Hungary—and in East-Central Europe in general—women leaders are typically absent. Based on in-depth interviews with clergywomen, our study, which has focused on clergywomen’s aspirations and choices, explores the reasons why women’s church careers in Hungary will stop progressing at a certain point. We argue that by adapting to the traditional gender beliefs typical in Hungarian churches, clergywomen’s choices contribute to the maintenance of the existing gender order rather than challenge it Nevertheless, through their growing presence and the way in which they minister, Hungarian clergywomen have gradually expanded women’s opportunities in the church, albeit mostly unintentionally, by following a special way of emancipation: ‘norm-following emancipation’. This way of emancipation legitimizes women in the ministry but does not promote women in leadership roles.

Restitutio Interruptus: Minority Churches, Property Rights and Europeanisation in Romania

The article aims to explain the changing dynamics of property restitution to historical Hungarian churches in Romania. While in the early 2000s most claims by these churches were approved, after 2010 most of their petitions were denied when the courts started questioning these churches’ historical property rights. It is argued here that this jurisprudential shift can be explained by the changing political environment after Romania’s EU accession, when the courts deferred to the prevailing social consensus, reflecting the unpopularity of restitution to minority churches amongst the Romanian public.

Ágota Fóris, Translation and Terminology. Theory and Practice in Hungary, Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary. Budapest, Paris : L’Harmattan Publishing, 2022, 210 p.

Ágota Fóris, Translation and Terminology. Theory and Practice in Hungary, Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary. Budapest, Paris : L’Harmattan Publishing, 2022, 210 p.

Epizode u životu Bosanske muslimanske zajednice u Mađarskoj (1920-1945)

In this study we present an important and interesting period in the history of Islam in Hungary in the 20th century, the past of the Islamic community in Budapest between the two world wars, which was mainly composed of Bosniaks. Special emphasis will be placed on the life of the community's imam, Husein Hilmi Durić , ‘Grand Mufti’ of Buda and former Military Imam, his domestic and international activities on behalf of the community, and the Hungarian supporters, friends and helpers of the Bosniaks. There is also a brief description of a few other members of the community. The Hungarian Islamic Community , founded in 1988 and still functioning as an established church in Hungary, claims as its legal predecessor the Independent Hungarian Autonomous Islamic Religious Community of Buda, named after Gül Baba, which operated de facto between 1931 and 1945. In our study, we describe in detail how Bosnian soldiers who fought valiantly in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy's army in the First World War found their way to Hungary after the war, how they found a new home, mostly in Budapest, how they started their lives again, choosing mostly Hungarian wives and quickly learning Hungarian language and customs. But soon the practice of Islam became indispensable for them, and that is why the first Islamic community in Hungary was founded in 1931. The adventurous life of the community's leader, Husein Hilmi Durić, is described in detail, along with his extensive activities in Hungary and his domestic and international contacts. Similarly, we describe the activities of influential Hungarian supporters of the community (e.g. Andor Medriczky, Gyula Germanus, István Bárczy) who selflessly helped Bosnian Muslims to practice their faith in Hungary. We look at the two major trips of the community leaders to the Middle East and India to strengthen Islam in Hungary and to raise funds for the planned mosque in Buda, which never materialised. Durić's special relationship with the Albanian King Zogu, his travels to Tirana and his programmes are also discussed in more detail. Nor can we ignore the unfortunate fact that in the 1930s and 1940s, during the Christian Nationalist Horthy era, many people did not look kindly on the activities of Bosnian Muslims living in Hungary. We then turn to the life and activities of another community leader, Mehmed Resulović, as a fencing master. We will also outline how an average Bosniak lived, what he did, how he spent his everyday life, how he dressed and how he entertained himself in Hungary in the 1930s and 1940s, far from his homeland. We also discuss, of course, how some of them became involved in Hungarian politics, as members of far-right organisations and movements, possibly because they were invited to join these circles by their former Hungarian officers and comrades in arms of First World War. Finally, we outline the life of an average Bosnian Muslim, Hasan Jamaković, who had a typical career in Hungary.

‘This nest is for all kinds of birds’? National identity questions in the refugee reception of the Reformed Church in Hungary

ABSTRACT This contribution discusses how concerns over ethnic identity and solidarity shape attitudes towards migration within the Reformed Church in Hungary. Hungary faced an influx of refugees on two occasions in the 1980s and again in 2015, which the Reformed Church responded to very differently. At the end of the 1980s, the drastic deterioration of circumstances in Romania and the forced assimilation of ethnic minorities led to a wave of migration into Hungary. In response, the Reformed Church played a pioneering role in offering relief to refugees. The Church also became involved in the broader political issue of immigration by actively contributing to public debates. During the refugee crisis of 2015, the Church remained divided over the level of support it should offer to people who arrived primarily from the Middle East. Although practical assistance was offered to those in need by the Church’s aid organisation, theologians and church leaders expressed fears about dangers that these refugees might pose to Hungary and to Europe’s perceived Christian identity. This contribution argues that ethnic identity played both a constructive and restrictive role, and that the Church’s distinct responses may be understood as deriving from its ethno-religious self-identification.

"Neznesiteľná" farnosť ako spôsob perzekúcie kňaza v Hornom Uhorsku na začiatku 20. storočia: Prípad Karola Antona Medveckého v Bacúrove

The aim of the article is to present the process of persecution of Slovak Catholic priests in Upper Hungary at the beginning of the twentieth century. Hungarian bishops punished politically active priests by making them forcibly serve in the poorest parishes across all the Hungarian dioceses. It was a strategic way of Hungarianizing the Hungarian church hierarchy, which involved bullying them to morally and socially breaking non­-Hungarian priests. The article presents the priest Karol Anton MedveckĂ˝, who was in a dispute with the Bishop of BanskĂĄ Bystrica, Wolfgang Radnai. The bishop left MedveckĂ˝ to work in the parish of BacĂşrov for almost ten years, despite many requests for a transfer. The priest in the parish faced unsatisfactory building conditions, thefts from their parishioners, crop failure, economic shortages and isolation. In addition, Radnai did not even provide MedveckĂ˝ with the position of pastor and paid him late. The bishop kept his own promise and did not transfer MedveckĂ˝ to a more ‘bearable’ parish. He only left BacĂşrov after the founding of Czechoslovakia, when the bishop no longer had official power over him. After the First World War, the situation changed when MedveckĂ˝, as a ministerial secretary, personally oversaw the expulsion of Bishop Radnai from Czechoslovakia.