Chrysanthemum Morifolium Ramat Research Articles

Using leaf explants for transformation of Chrysanthemum morifolium ramat. mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens

An Agrobacterium-mediated transformation for chrysanthemum using leaf explants of two different cultivars was conducted. Leaves were first infected with Agrobacterium tumefaciens LBA4404 strain, harbouring a binary vector pBI121 carrying the GUS reporter gene and the nptII as the selectable marker gene. 30 seconds for infection of leaves proved to be the optimum duration. Best results were achieved when explants were cocultivated with A. tumefaciens for two days. Shoot induction medium was supplemented with 7 mgl -1 kanamycin and 300 mgl -1 cefotaxime. Putative transgenic plants were obtained after rooting on 1/2 MS medium containing 7mgl-1 kanamycin in the absence of cefotaxime. Transformation efficiency of ‘Reagan Elite Salmon’ (29.1%) was higher than ‘Resomee Splendid’ (9.1%). Presence of the gus gene was verified with histochemical GUS assay and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of transformed plants.

Chrysanthemum promotes adipocyte differentiation, adiponectin secretion and glucose uptake.

The adipose tissue is an endocrine organ, and its endocrine function is closely related to type 2 diabetes. Edible Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (ECM) possesses several biological properties; however, its effect on adipocytes remains unclear. We investigated the effect of the hot water extract of ECM (HW-ECM) on 3T3-L1 adipocytes. HW-ECM enhanced adipocyte differentiation, adiponectin secretion, and glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 cells. It also increased the mRNA levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), a regulator of adipocyte differentiation, adiponectin transcription, and GLUT4 expression. In addition, HW-ECM increased the mRNA levels of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-delta (C/EBPδ), which induces PPARγ expression, but not C/EBPβ, during early adipocyte differentiation. These results suggest that HW-ECM enhances adipocyte differentiation, adiponectin secretion, and glucose uptake through C/EBPδ-induced PPARγ expression. These effects of HW-ECM on adipocytes suggest that HW-ECM is potentially beneficial for type 2 diabetes.

Antioxidant effects of 14 Chinese traditional medicinal herbs against human low-density lipoprotein oxidation

The relationship between the antioxidant activities and inhibitory effect of 14 Chinese medicinal herbs against oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) formation was evaluated. Prolongation of the lag phase of LDL oxidation depended on the concentration of the herbs. The concentration of each herb that was able to prolong the lag time by about two-fold was calculated and expressed as doubling-time concentration. The lower the doubling-time concentration, the stronger the inhibitory effect exhibited toward LDL oxidation. Among them, Chrysanthemi Flos (Chrysanthemum morifolium ramat; 甘菊花 gān jú huā), Crataegi Fructus (Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. var. major N.E.Br.; 山楂 shān zhā), and Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn.; 洛神 luò shén) showed significant inhibitory effects. Correlation coefficients between doubling-time concentration and radical-scavenging activities were high; the total phenolic content was also high. In conclusion, phenolic compounds contributed not only to antioxidant activities, but also to the inhibitory effect against LDL oxidation. Chrysanthemi Flos, Crataegi Fructus, and H. sabdariffa, with lower doubling-time concentrations, could be potent phytochemical agents to reduce LDL oxidation and prevent the progression of atherosclerosis.

Influence of P Deficiency on Major Secondary Metabolism in Flavonoids Synthesis Pathway of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat

The aim of this paper is to study the influence of P deficiency on secondary metabolites of flavonoid in Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. The regression equation between flavonoid and phenolic acid content was Y = −294.46X + 150.66 (R2 = 0.9205, P < 0.01) in check and Y = 42.62X + 2.49 (R2 = 0.9564, P < 0.01) in P deficient treatment (Y, flavonoid content; X, phenolic content). There were two principal components to control the flavonoid major synthesis process, that was principal 1 [phenolic acid, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), cinnamic acid and p-coumaric acid] (88.17%) and principal 2 [4-coumarate coenzyme A ligase (4CL), Cinnamate-4-hydroxylase (C4H)] (9.64%) domination under normal growth of C. moriloium. However, under P deficiency condition, the principal components were principal 1 (phenolic acid, cinnamic acid and p-coumaric acid and C4H) (81.46%) and principal 2 (PAL) (18.53%) domination, respectively. The influence of P deficiency on flavonoid major synthesis pathway was caused by the change of PAL and C4H activities.

First Report of Potato virus Y Strain N-Wilga Infecting Chrysanthemum in China

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) is a commercially important ornamental grown worldwide, and is also extensively used as an edible and medicinal plant. In the present work, viruses and viroids infecting chrysanthemum were investigated in China in 2012 and 2013. Typical viral symptoms were observed in field-grown chrysanthemum with leaf yellowing and mottled leaves in Wenjiang District, Sichuan Province, China. The incidence of these symptoms in the field was 12.3%. Chrysanthemum virus B (CVB), Tomato aspermy virus (TAV), Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), Tobacoo mosaic virus (TMV), Chrysanthemum stunt viroid (CSVd), and Chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle viroid (CChMVd), which had previously been reported to infect chrysanthemum in China (2,3), were not detected by RT-PCR assay. Since these symptomatic chrysanthemum plants grew next to a tobacco field, viruses affecting tobacco were suspected as possible cause. Sixteen symptomatic leaves and 12 non-symptomatic leaves were collected and tested for Potato virus Y (PVY) presence using commercial PVY-specific DAS-ELISA kits (Catalog no. PSA20001, Agdia) Six samples were found positive for PVY. RT-PCR tests using specific primers for CP gene (CP-F 5'-ACTGTGATGAATGGGCTTATG-3'; CP-R 5'-GGCATATATGGTTCCTTTTTG-3') (4) amplified a single, expected 218-bp DNA fragment from chrysanthemum extracts from all six samples positive for PVY in ELISA. These six PCR fragments were sequenced and found 100% identical to each other. The sequence (GenBank Accession No. KJ174515) shared 99% identity with corresponding sequences of several PVY isolates (NC_001616, EF026076, HM590407, and JQ924288). The same six positive samples were subjected to a multiplex RT-PCR assay (1) to identify the PVY strain type, and all six PVY samples from Sichuan were found to belong to the PVYN-Wi strain. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the PVYN-Wi strain infecting chrysanthemum in Sichuan, China.

Mosquito repellent activity of essential oils and extracts from Chamomile flowers

Aedes aegypti L. is the major vector for dengue and yellow fever. In order to discover plant based mosquito repellents, the n-hexane, ethyl acetate extracts and essential oils from the flowers of German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.), Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile L.) and Juhua (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) were screened for the repellent activity against Ae. aegypti. In human based “cloth patch” repellent bioassays, German chamomile essential oils showed the highest activity. Thus, we determined chemical differences between these three chamomile essential oils using GC-FID and GC-MS. Two Roman chamomile oil samples were characterized by the isobutyl angelate, 2-butenyl angelate and 3-methyl pentyl angelate, whereas all four German chamomile essential oils were characterized by α-bisabolol oxide A and α-bisabolol oxide B, bisabolone oxide A, (E)-β-farnesene and chamazulene. Borneol, ar-curcumene and bornyl acetate were found as principle compounds in Juhua essential oil. In this study, the major compound α-bisabolol oxide A and some of polyacetylenes which have a history of insecticidal activity were investigated for their biting deterrent activity using in vitro K & D system against Ae. Aegypti.

Rapid quantification of chemical constituents from chamomiles and dietary supplements using HPTLC

Matricaria recutita L. (German Chamomile), Anthemis nobilis L. (Roman Chamomile) and Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat are commonly used chamomiles. A simple and rapid high performance thin layer chromatographic (HPTLC) method was developed for separation and determination of six flavonoids (rutin, luteolin-7-O-β-glucoside, chamaemeloside, apigenin-7-O-β-glucoside, luteolin, apigenin) and one coumarin (umbelliferone) from chamomile samples and dietary supplements. The separation was achieved on silica NH2 w/UV254 HPTLC plates using dichloromethane/acetonitrile/ethyl formate/glacial acetic acid/formic acid (11/2.5/3/1.25/1.25 v/v) as mobile phase. The quantitation of each compound was carried out using densitometric reflection/absorption mode at their respective absorbance maxima after post-chromatographic derivatization using natural products reagent (1% methanolic solution of diphenylboric acid-β-ethylamino ester). Fifteen authenticated chamomile samples, two capsules and seven tea bags were analyzed. The total content of six compounds was found to be in the range 0.04 – 2.38 mg/100 mg dried plant material, 0.39 – 0.65 mg/ave. wt of capsule and 0.05 – 0.64 mg/100 mg dry wt of tea bags, respectively. The method was validated for specificity, limits of detection and quantification, precision (intra and inter-day), accuracy and stability.

Impact of : ratio and nitrogen supply on nitrogen remobilization in potted chrysanthemum grown in a subirrigation system

MacDonald, W. N., Tsujita, M. J., Blom, T. J. and Shelp, B. J. 2014. Impact of [Formula: see text]:[Formula: see text] ratio and nitrogen supply on nitrogen remobilization in potted chrysanthemum grown in a subirrigation system. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 867–880. Subirrigation is being adopted as an environmentally friendly strategy for managing the nutrition of potted greenhouse plants. Here, we investigated two strategies for enhancing the remobilization of N during the development of the inflorescence in subirrigated potted chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) in an attempt to improve nitrogen (N) use efficiency. (1) The replacement of a portion of the nitrate in the nutrient solution with ammonium decreased the nitrate content, especially in the stem plus petioles, and increased the reduced N content early in the growth cycle, but did not improve N use efficiency. (2) The use of a lower N supply (200 vs. 400 mg total N per pot delivered over 3 and 5 wk, respectively), either as nitrate or ammonium nitrate, eliminated nitrate accumulation prior to inflorescence development, thereby improving N use efficiency. Inflorescence quality was unaffected; however, at the lower N level there was some evidence of chlorosis on the oldest leaves. Thus, there may be considerable potential to reduce the N supply in a commercial greenhouse setting as long as an adequate supply is provided early in the growing period.

First Report of Bacterial Wilt on Chrysanthemum Caused by Dickeya chrysanthemi (syn. Erwinia chrysanthemi) in Hungary.

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum spp.) is a popular potted and cut plant ornamental in Hungary. In September 2012, chrysanthemum plants (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. cv. Palisade) showing wilt symptoms were collected from different greenhouses in the cities of Budakalász and Pilis near Budapest. Affected plants had dark brown to black lesions on the leaves and stems. Spots on the leaves were first water soaked and then became necrotic, and the plants wilted. According to the growers, disease symptoms developed rapidly, resulting in losses of nearly 100%. The disease caused a loss of ~€2,000 for the growers in cities of Budakalász and Pilis in Hungary. Losses for growers and consumers could have reached half a million euros. Ten samples were used for disease diagnosis and bacteria were isolated according to the method of Schaad et al. (3). Briefly, diseased leaf and stem tissues were macerated and streaked onto King's medium B (KB). Colonies on KB were white and non-fluorescent. All 10 strains grew at 26°C, were gram negative, and induced a hypersensitive response on tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. 'White Burley') leaves (1). Biochemical tests were also used for identification, and the results of API 20E (Biomérieux, Marcy l'Etoile, France), demonstrated that the bacterium belonged to the Enterobacteriaceae. The strain was positive for β-galactosidase and citrate utilization, acetoin and indole production, gelatinase, and utilization of glucose, mannitol, saccharose, melibiose, and arabinose. For molecular identification of the pathogen, the 16S rDNA gene was amplified from strain DCBK-1H with a general primer pair (63f/1389r) (2). The PCR products were cloned into a pGEM T-Easy plasmid vector (Promega, Madison, WI) and transformed into Escherichia coli DH5α cells. A recombinant plasmid (2A2.5) was sequenced using the M13 forward and reverse primers. The sequence was deposited in NCBI GenBank (Accession No. HF913430) and showed 99 to 100% sequence identity with a number of Dickeya chrysanthemi strains found in the database, including type strain HM590189, GQ293897, GQ293898 with 99% similarity and 100% identity with sequence FM946179. On the basis of the symptoms, colony morphology, biochemical tests, and 16S rDNA sequence homology, the pathogen was identified as D. chrysanthemi. Pathogenicity was tested by inoculating the recovered strains onto three 1-month-old, healthy potted chrysanthemum cuttings (C. morifolium cv. Palisade). Four leaves and stem each of three 'Palisade' cultivars were inoculated by injecting ~10 μl of a bacteria suspension containing 107 CFU/ml into each leaf and stem. As a negative control, one plant was inoculated with water in each of four leaves and stem. Plants were enclosed in plastic bags and incubated in a greenhouse under 80% shade at 26°C day and 17°C night temperatures. Within 24 h, water-soaked spots appeared on inoculated leaves and the plants were wilted. The water control appeared normal. D. chrysanthemi was re-isolated and identified as described above; thus, Koch's postulates were fulfilled. To our knowledge, this is the first report of bacterial wilt caused by D. chrysanthemi on chrysanthemum in Hungary.

Isolation of flower color and shape mutations by gamma radiation of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. Youka

We investigated the effect of radiation damage on in vitro mutation induction in chrysanthemum. White petals of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. Youka) were selected to induce mutation by gamma radiation. Calli produced were irradiated with gamma rays at 0, 10, 15 and 20 Gy. We found that the plants from the irradiated calli were different from control plants in number of leaves, leaf length & width, number of flowers, flower diameter, petiole diameter and petiole length after transplanting into the greenhouse for almost 70 days. Three mutants in flower color and shape were found in 15 Gy-treated plants. First type of mutant (M.1) has tubular petals. The second (M.2) and third (M.3) ones both have yellow flowers, while one of them has spooned shaped ray florets similar to the original cultivar and the other one has flat shaped florets. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR showed that most of carotenoid-biosynthesis related genes, except for violaxanthin deepoxidase (VDE) and lycopene e-cyclase (LCYE), showed similar expression patterns in petals of the original ‘Youka’ and its mutants (M2 & M3). VDE and LCYE results showed high expression levels in M3 and M2 & M3 respectively, comparing with the control. On the other hand, expression patterns for VDE were similar in control and M2. These yellow mutants were maintained vegetatively and proved to be true-to-type in one successive generation. It can be concluded that gamma radiation with 15 Gy dose can be used for in vitro induction of flower color and shape mutations of chrysanthemum cv. Youka.

Impact of various combinations of nitrate and chloride on nitrogen remobilization in potted chrysanthemum grown in a subirrigation system

MacDonald, W. N., Tsujita, M. J., Blom, T. J. and Shelp, B. J. 2014. Impact of various combinations of nitrate and chloride on nitrogen remobilization in potted chrysanthemum grown in a subirrigation system. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 643–657. Subirrigation is gaining popularity as an environmentally friendly strategy for managing the nutrition of potted chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.), as well as many other popular potted ornamental crops grown in the greenhouse. Subirrigation systems recycle the nutrient solution, but unlike the common practice of overhead irrigation, salts are more likely to accumulate in the top of the growing medium. Thus, further research is required to optimize the technology for the timing and application rates of soluble nitrogen in order to benefit from the high mobility of this nutrient within plants. This study tested the hypothesis that N use efficiency of subirrigated potted chrysanthemum can be improved by managing the nitrate status of the plant. Replacement of the nitrate supply with water 1 wk prior to inflorescence emergence (the midpoint of the experimental 10-wk crop cycle) was more effective in reducing the nitrate contents of above-ground tissues, particularly the stems and petioles, than the use of nitrate or various combinations of nitrate and chloride, thereby resulting in an improved N usage index (i.e., shoot dry mass×(shoot dry mass/shoot N content)). Shoot or inflorescence dry mass and N content were unaffected at the conclusion of the crop cycle by this treatment, whereas the electrical conductivity of the pot medium was reduced. Thus, elimination of nitrate prior to inflorescence emergence can be an effective strategy for improving N use efficiency in subirrigated potted chrysanthemums without sacrificing quality.

Variasi Morfologi Bunga pada Beberapa Varietas Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat

The aim of this research was to know the morphological variety of flower in Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat through visual observation which use digital camera and then was analyzed descriptively. Varieties of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat in this research were C. morifolium var reagen pink , C. morifolium var puma purple, C. morifolium var evergreen, C. morifolium var boris becker, C. morifolium var stroika, C. morifolium var tiger, C. morifolium var remix purple, C. morifolium var jaguar red, C. morifolium var rhino white, C. morifolium var pasopati, C. morifolium var towntalk. From those 11 varieties showed the morphological differences of the flowers, which are the color of ray floret, the quantity of ray floret, the quantity of ray floret layers, the shape of ray floret, the tip of ray floret, the quantity of disk floret, the position of disk floret, the diameter of flower, the length of ray floret, the width of ray floret, the diameter of involucrum and the disk shape. However, this research also look the similarities between the varieties, which are the edge of ray floret (flat), the color of involucrum is green, the adhering of inter-involucrum (star like), the tip of involucrum (dull), transparent coating involucrum, the quantity of involucrum layers (2 layers), the color of the corolla tubes(yellow), the branched and yellow pistil, and yellow anther. From the results it can be concluded that Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat has multiple the morphological differences and similarities of the flower morphology between the varieties.

Anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of the various kinds of herbal tea

Objectives : Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in a wide spectrum of diseases including chronic inflammation and cancer. In this study, we investigated the antioxidant activities and anti-inflammatory effects of the extracts from the herbal teas such as Lonicera japonica Thunberg (L. japonica), Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat (C. morifolium), Mentha arvensis L. (M. arvensis), and P.rhizoma. Methods : Anti-oxidant activity was evaluated using DPPH radical scavenging assay and <TEX>$Fe^{2+}$</TEX> chelating assay. And DNA cleavage assay was performed to evaluate an anti-oxidative effect. Anti-inflammatory effect was performed using NO generation assay and western blot in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cell line. Results : L. japonica scavenged DPPH radical by 9.8% at 12.5 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX>, 24.8% at 25 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX>, 34.3% at 50 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX>, 61.1% at 100 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX> and 75.8% at 200 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX>, respectively. In addition, C. morifolium and M. arvensis removed DPPH radical by 15.6% and 10.4% at 12.5 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX>, 34.8% and 22.8% at 25 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX>, 66.9% and 43.3% at 50 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX>, 87.4% and 69.1% at 100 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX>, and 92.1% and 73.2% at 200 <TEX>${\mu}g/ml$</TEX>, respectively. However, P. rhizoma did not affect on DPPH radical scavenging. The <TEX>$Fe^{2+}$</TEX> chelating activity was highest in L. japonica, but lowest in P. rhizoma among the herbal teas. In addition, the extracts from L. japonica, C. morifolium and M. arvensis inhibited oxidative DNA damage via its anti-oxidant activity. In anti-inflammatory effect, the extracts from C. morifolium inhibited NO production. In addition, it suppressed the <TEX>$NF-{\kappa}B$</TEX> signaling pathway in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Conclusions : Together, this study indicates that L. japonica, M. arvensis and C. morifolium possess the protective effect against the oxidative DNA damage. Furthermore, C. morifolium exerts an anti-inflammatory effect.

Flavonoid accumulation during florescence in three Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv. ‘Hangju’ genotypes

• The flavonoid trend during flowering course is “peak-shape”. • Flowering stage III or IV was the suggested optimal harvest-time. • Genotypes TZ and TW from Tongxiang County exhibited greater flavonoid contents.

Identification of high long-day leaf number cultivars and prevention of premature budding by cold pre-treatment for fine control of flowering in summer-to-autumn-flowering chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)

SummaryWhen maintained continuously under long-day (non-inductive) photoperiodic conditions, chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.), a short-day plant, eventually initiates flower buds. This floral initiation is termed ‘premature budding’ in commercial chrysanthemum production. Premature budding, which reduces cut-flower quality, is often observed in summer-to-autumn-flowering cultivars. The timing of flower initiation under non-inductive photoperiods depends on the number of leaves that a plant has formed below the terminal flower bud. This leaf number indicates whether a cultivar will form flower buds prematurely during a non-inductive photoperiod. Two summer-flowering, ten summer-to-autumn-flowering, and six autumn-flowering chrysanthemum cultivars were grown under controlled conditions to measure the number of leaves produced under a non-inductive photoperiod with a night-break. The average number of leaves per plant ranged from 13.8 for ‘Tasogare’, to 69.1 for ‘Furamu’. These data can be used to identify cultivars that will exhibit minimal flower-bud formation under night-break conditions. The numbers of leaves were greater in plants subjected to a 12-week cold treatment prior to planting, suggesting that premature budding could be inhibited by a prolonged cold pre-treatment. We also examined whether the cold treatment of stock plants was an effective means to prevent premature budding. The incidence of premature budding was reduced in rooted cuttings obtained from cold-treated stock plants of the summer-to-autumn-flowering cultivars ‘Nagano Queen’, ‘Ariesu’, ‘Sei-un’, ‘Oruka’, and ‘Floral Yuka’. Without a cold treatment, cuttings from these cultivars showed premature budding. This result suggests that a prolonged cold pre-treatment of stock plants could prevent both premature budding and reduced cut-flower quality in summer-to-autumn-flowering chrysanthemum cultivars.

Matrix solid phase dispersion extraction for determination of flavonoids in the flower of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. by capillary zone electrophoresis

Matrix solid phase dispersion was applied for the extraction of flavonoids, including kaempferol, apigenin, naringenin, (+)-catechin hydrate, rutin hydrate, quercetin, luteolin and ferulic acid in the flower of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. The separation and determination of the target analytes were performed by capillary zone electrophoresis. Florisil was used as a dispersant and methanol was used as the elution solvent. The elution solvent volume and flow rate were 8 mL and 0.5 mL min−1, respectively. The limits of detection for determining the analytes were in the range of 46.49–72.03 ng mL−1. The relative standard deviations varied between 1.41% and 3.40% (n = 5). Real samples were analyzed. The recoveries for determining the flavonoids were in the range of 80.13–121.25%. The results show that the present method is feasible for determining flavonoids in the flower of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.

Regeneration of plants from leaves of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ram. cv. Bronze Bornholm in in vitro cultures

Plants were obtained from cultured in vitro leaves of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ram. cv. Bronze Bornholm. The leaves were inoculated on Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) supplemented with cytokinins (kinetin - KIN, zeatin - ZEA, 6-benzyloaminopurine - BAP) and auxins (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - 2,4-D, α-naphtaleneacetic acid - NAA, 3-indolilacetic acid - IAA, p-fluorophenylalanine - PFA) in various combinations and concentra-tions. The most suitable medium was that one which contained 4 mg/l KIN, 2 mg/l NAA and 50 mg/l PFA.

Aphid Resistance in Florist's Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) Induced by Sea Anemone Equistatin Overexpression

Florist's chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) belongs to the Asteraceae family and represents the second most important floricultural crop in the world. Most genotypes are sensitive to aphids and infestations can lower quality and cause transmission of viruses. The protease inhibitor Sea Anemone Equistatin (SAE) carries three domains responsible for the inhibition of both cysteine and aspartic proteases. Artificial diet bioassays showed that SAE is readily toxic when ingested by the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, and the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii. We transformed chrysanthemum genotype 1581 by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation with the SAE gene under the control of the chrysanthemum RbcS promoter to induce aphid resistance. Non-choice leaf disk and whole plant bioassays were carried out to analyze deleterious effects of SAE on population growth and survival of both Myzus persicae and A. gossypii. After 7 days, M. persicae populations on specific transgenic lines were up to 69% smaller relative to control populations in a whole plant bioassay. The mortality of cotton aphids was 11% on control lines and up to 32% on transgenic lines after 5 days. The results show that SAE may be a promising agent for the control of some aphid species in transgenic plants.

Review: Improving nitrogen use efficiency of potted chrysanthemum: Strategies and benefits

MacDonald, W. N., Blom, T. J., Tsujita, M. J. and Shelp, B. J. 2013. Review: Improving nitrogen use efficiency of potted chrysanthemum: Strategies and benefits. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 1009–1016. Floricultural greenhouse operations can pose significant environmental risk due to the leaching and runoff of nutrients such as [Formula: see text]. To face this challenge, Ontario growers have adopted recirculating systems, such as the subirrigated “ebb and flow” system, on benches, troughs and concrete floors. Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) is the most commonly grown floricultural greenhouse crop species in the world and the potted type is well adapted to subirrigation. Reduction of N fertilization towards the end of the crop cycle is generally recommended to improve the shelf life of cut and potted plants, but it is uncertain how this practice influences the N status of the plant and the electrical conductivity of the growing medium. In this review, we discuss N use efficiency and strategies for managing the [Formula: see text] status of plants, and then propose that this knowledge can help to improve the N use efficiency of potted chrysanthemum grown with subirrigation under greenhouse conditions.

Genetic Engineering of Novel Bluer-Colored Chrysanthemums Produced by Accumulation of Delphinidin-Based Anthocyanins

Chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) have no purple-, violet- or blue-flowered cultivars because they lack delphinidin-based anthocyanins. This deficiency is due to the absence of the flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase gene (F3'5'H), which encodes the key enzyme for delphinidin biosynthesis. In F3'5'H-transformed chrysanthemums, unpredictable and unstable expression levels have hampered successful production of delphinidin and reduced desired changes in flower color. With the aim of achieving delphinidin production in chrysanthemum petals, we found that anthocyanin biosynthetic gene promoters combined with a translational enhancer increased expression of some F3'5'H genes and accompanying delphinidin-based anthocyanin accumulation in transgenic chrysanthemums. Dramatic accumulation of delphinidin (up to 95%) was achieved by simple overexpression of Campanula F3'5'H controlled by a petal-specific flavanone 3-hydroxylase promoter from chrysanthemum combined with the 5'-untranslated region of the alcohol dehydrogenase gene as a translational enhancer. The flower colors of transgenic lines producing delphinidin-based anthocyanins changed from a red-purple to a purple-violet hue in the Royal Horticultural Society Colour Charts. This result represents a promising step toward molecular breeding of blue chrysanthemums.