Chronological Divisions Research Articles

The Shape of Medieval DoctrineThe Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Vol. 3, The Growth of Medieval Theology (600-1300). Jaroslav Pelikan

The appearance of the third volume of Jaroslav Pelikan's history of the development of doctrine advances this monumental project past its midway point and invites evaluation of the success of this volume in relation to the project as a whole. Pelikan's work is the only history of doctrine of this century that in terms of scope, detail, and erudition offers comparison with such classic nineteenth-century histories as those of Adolph Harnack and Reinhold Seeberg (original editions 1886-89 and 1895-98, respectively). In its general shape it marks a real advance over these famous series, most notably in overturning previous disregard of later Eastern theology by devoting the second of its projected five volumes, The Spirit of Eastern Christendom (600-1700), to this significant doctrinal tradition. In many ways it also makes sense to treat Eastern and Western doctrinal developments up to 600 together in a single volume, as Pelikan has done in The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). This procedure gives a better sense than many previous treatments of the relative place of the early period in the total evolution of Christian doctrine and closes the story at a crucial dividing point in the history of the two halves of Christendom. Even though Pelikan admits that the present volume's chronological division is necessarily arbitrary (p. 8), there is good warrant for breaking volume 3 at ca. 1300, since the main theme is the formation of orthodox Catholicism in the West, a process largely complete by that date but increasingly under question during the four following centuries. Pelikan would thus seem to agree in broad lines with the viewpoint that the Reformation was in many ways a distinctively late medieval movement.

India's Vietnam Policy, 1946-1979

INDOCHINA HAS OCCUPIED the attention of much of international politics since the second world war. Vietnam has generally been at the center of such attention, from the sustained fighting begun in December 1946 between the French and the Vietminh, through the formal and forcible reunification of the country over 1975-1976, to the fighting between the communists in the region in 1979. In the event, Vietnam acquired and retains for many a symbolic value that exceeds the strategic importance of the country. The focus of study in this paper is narrower than the conflicts in Vietnam per se. Indeed, the direct object of interest is not war in Vietnam but Indian foreign policy-that is, to discuss a regional conflict not for its own sake but in order to look at the factors underlying the conduct of Indian foreign policy in respect to a crisis of international significance. For this purpose, it is useful to conceive of Indian external relations with the great powers in particular. India's Vietnam policy always operated within the context of its general foreign policy, as one would expect. Somewhat less obviously, fluctuations in its Vietnam policy can be shown to have been direct reflections of changes in its relations with major powers. Although this mesh of relations with great powers and bilateral policy towards Vietnam received its most dramatic manifestation in the 1979 Chinese incursion into Vietnam, the argument is valid for the entire period. Consideration of the last point necessitates breaking the study into time periods. The broad, chronological division is a sixfold derivative of both the internal logic of the conflicts themselves and of factors exogenous to Vietnam: the French Indochina war from 1946 to 1954; the five years following the Geneva Agreements of 1954; the years of open

From Reading to the Reading of Literature

from the administrator. A new type of classroom management would be needed, and students would have to assume a measure of responsibility for their own learning. The most crucial point is for the teacher to define clear, specific, measurable objectives and to guide the students to meet these objectives. The teaching of composition is always a problem, and all three groups might indeed profit from some common work on composition-the organization of a composition, the various types of compositions and the appropriateness of each, the role of mechanics and grammar. If composition is the expression of ideas, if the ideas have been discussed orally, if the ideas are relevant and interesting to the student, then composition does not emerge as a demon. Such a course as the one outlined above tends to produce students who are interested in what they are doing, who wish to continue the study of literature since they have found it rewarding, who spread the good word among their friends and who enroll in college courses in literature. Many of them have wonderful experiences at the university level and continue language study for the joy it brings them. Unfortunately, some of these students are placed in courses where attention is given to petty, insignificant detail, where themes and ideas are seldom mentioned, where the discussions are not in the target language, where compositions are written in English and where only the lecture method prevails. While this type of course may be beneficial for some rom the administrator. A new type of classroom anagement would be needed, and stu ents ould have to assume a measure of responsibility or their own learning. The most crucial point is or the teacher to define clear, spe ific, measurble objectives and to guide the students to meet hese objectives. he teaching of composition is always a problem, and all three g oups might indeed profit rom some common work on composition-the rganization of a composition, the various types f compositions and the appropri teness of e ch, he role of mechani s and grammar. If composiion is the expression of ideas, if th ideas have e n discussed orally, if the ideas ar relevant nd interesting to the student, hen composition oes not emerge as a demon. student , it is ost detrimental to those students who have been trained in a dynamic atmosphere. They want more-and they go in search of it in other areas. We will probably always be plagued with this problem, for poor and inappropriate teaching is certainly not restricted to any one level of instruction, and universities and colleges are faced with a major problem of placement and sectioning; more colleges and universities, however, might consider thematic approaches in those areas wher only chronological divisions are followed; it is a pleasure to greet a returning student, who, while majoring in business administration, h enjoy d a vibrant, dynamic course in Hispanic literature and announces that he will take further electives in this area.

Late Pleistocene Tephrochronology of Kyushu Region, Japan

In the Late Pleistocene of Kyushu, the San'in and Aso-Kirishima volcanic series began to erupt on the Tsukushi type andesites.The former are characterized by the pyroclastic flow of hornblende-biotite andesite, connected with forming the graben, the latter are pumiceous flow including welded tuff, connected with forming the caldera.These volcanic activities are divided into three stages; older, middle and younger.Pyroclastic deposits of the older stage are interbedded with lacustrine deposits and dark gray coloured solid Loam bed (Older Loam). They form higher terraces.In the middle stage, a great volume of pyroclastic flow erupted out from the effusive center, which was depressed and formed a graben or a caldera at a slightly later period. Particularly, Aso and Aira pyroclastic flows covered extensive areas. Their volumes are estimated to be 175.2 and 154.8km3 by T. Matsumoto, (1952), and they form middle terraces. Therefore, they are the best tephrochronological key beds. On the other hand, 14C dates measured by K. Kigoshi show the Wurm glacial stage as follows; black humic clay at the base of Aira pumice fall (Fig. 1, 2): 22, 000±850 yr B. P. (Kigoshi and Endo, 1963), charcoal including in the base of Aso pyroclastic flow: 33, 000 +3, 000 -2, 200 yr B. P. (unpublished).In the younger stage, the central cones began to act a violent explosive eruption by which ejecta was thrown out. The ash, scoria and pumice wafted by wind covered the extensive areas and formed the Younger Loam (Fig. 4). Some of these activities continued to the Recent and supplied the essential part of the Black Volcanic Ash Formation.The Younger Loam Formation is divided into three beds; upper, middle and lower parts (Fig. 3). The lower bed overlies the gravel bed which covers the pyloclastic flow, or lies upon the flow immediately. The upper two beds cover the lower terrace and contain palaeolithic tools.The Black Volcanic Ash contains ceramics of the Jomon, Yayoi and later cultures, by which the chronological division of Ash beds may be classified.

The Place of the “Polity” in Aristotle's Theory of the Ideal State

T HE TRADITION OF Aristotelian scholarship has always distinguished the Politics two different, independent, and even discordant theoretical concerns-a of the ideal, or best state, and a of actual states. (In the new terminology, a value theory and a causal theory.) These two subjects, it is held, are set physically as well as logically and methodologically apart, the ideal state being treated Books VII and VIII, with Books II and III as a prefatory discourse, and actual constitutions Books IV, V, and VI. Book I is understood as a general introduction to the whole work. Some writers have even argued that dichotomy represents a chronological division of the books as well. According to view, the sections on the best state were written by the young Aristotle still under the influence of Plato, while the descriptive and empirical parts are the work of the mature scholar who had evolved an almost Machiavellian approach to the study of politics.1 According to the tradition, the two sections of the Politics were put together either by Aristotle himself or by an editor. And, either case, only a very incomplete job of reconciling the two was done. Possibly there was some reworking of Books VII and VIII. Werner Jaeger writes, It has been truly said that the Laws Plato moderates his state order to bring it closer to reality, and that Aristotle relaxes it still further. And he believes that the descriptive books were inserted before VII and VIII in order to give to the ideal state a positive foundation. But he goes on to add that this arrangement never got beyond the mere intention, and point of fact they do not any way prepare for and establish the ideal state, or at least not directly. In fact they positively interrupt and disturb the construction of the best state.2 Thus the two

Recent Contributions to Economic History: The United States, 1861-1900

When one reviews the literature that has appeared since 1945 relating to American economic history in the period from 1861 to 1900, the trends of scholarly interest and investigation are not entirely clear. The volume of output appears to have diminished and the incidence of interest to have shifted. Postwar publication seems more notable for the appearance, in diverse fields, of some distinguished monographs than for more general studies of the economy or its major components. It may be that the interest of scholars has shifted from this to other chronological periods, but it seems reasonably clear that research in the history of agriculture, public policies, financial institutions, and the relative status of major income groups has declined. There is evident, on the other hand, increased interest in the history of business enterprise, and this concern has been reflected in the appearance of numerous studies of entrepreneurship as well as of histories of individual corporations. It is perhaps significant that in this series of review articles the one exception to the chronological division of United States history is the article devoted to business history. This segregation operates to relieve me of the duty of reviewing the new literature in a field that was obviously of great significance in the last four decades of the nineteenth century. I should say, however, that it has seemed necessary to cite or discuss some few works of particular significance for my analysis.

The Motor Transportation Revolution

Only recently have business historians turned their attention to the motor transportation industry. Interest in this “new” and obviously important field is well served by an historical analysis of major industry-wide trends. Too often the historian and the businessman alike work without benefit of such perspective. The evolution of the motor transportation industry is here divided into four major chronological divisions, with some summary observations about post-World War II conditions. Major emphasis is laid upon the different developmental patterns exhibited by various motor carrier classifications, upon the competitive interreaction of rail and motor transport interests, and upon the far-reaching effect of state and federal regulation. The history of the motor transportation revolution yields information of value about railroad developments and provides a background for understanding basic twentieth-century trends in commodity distribution.

The Politics of African Church Separatist Movements in British Central Africa, 1892–1916

Opening ParagraphThe scope of this subject and convenient chronological divisions for it may be suggested by three quotations. The first comprises questions put to the Undersecretary for the Colonies in the British House of Commons, 1 and 8 September 1909, by Keir Hardie:…whether Elliott Kamwana, a native missionary working in Nyassaland under the auspices of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, was detained as a prisoner at Chinteche from 18th March till 4th May and then deported to Cape Town, at his own expense, by the Governor…[whether] the preaching complained of referred to the Second Advent…[and]…was the statement [made] that the abolition of taxation was to follow the Second Advent…whether all this was done without any charge having been formulated against Kamwana or any form of trial having taken place…?

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PEDIATRIC AND INFECTIOUS DISEASE SOCIETY

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THE CHRONOLOGICAL DIVISIONS OF ACTS

THE CHRONOLOGICAL DIVISIONS OF ACTS

On the Grouping of some Divisions of so-called ‘Jurassic’ Time

I Introduction . A considerable portion of this paper was written before the appearance of a communication on Dundry Hill. A reference to the ideas set forth in this paper will be found in that communication, in Table IV, facing p. 696. [When this paper was first presented to the Society the Author had designated the Ages by the terms Bathonian, Bajocian, etc., proposing, in effect, to continue the usage carried out in the communication above mentioned, to employ these terms for chronological purposes only. They have been used formerly, as for instance by Renevier, for both stratigraphical and chronological divisions:— Bathonian Stage or Bathonian Age. However, it was pointed out to the Author that this plan would lead to confusion; and he then proposed to use, as distinctly chronological terms for Ages, names taken from dominant ammonite-genera. There is an advantage in this plan, seeing that the chronological divisions are based entirely upon zoological phenomena. And there was an admitted disadvantage in retaining for chronological purposes names such as Bathonian, Bajocian, etc., taken from places where particular strata were developed. But the change has a wider effect if a congruous series of terms is to be produced. Jurassic is equally open to the same objection as Bathonian, and it will require to be replaced by a term taken from some zoological phenomenon. The divisions of Jurassic—Eo- and Neojurassic—fall into the same category; they may be easily replaced by such terms as Arietidan and Stepheoceratidan Epochs, which appropriately mark the changes of