Chronic Stress-induced Depression-like Behaviors Research Articles

Targeting Phactr4 to rescue chronic stress-induced depression-like behavior in rats via regulating neuroinflammation and neuroplasticity

Depression is a neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by persistent pleasure loss and behavioral despair. However, the potential mechanisms and therapeutic targets for depression treatment remain unclear. Therefore, identifying the underlying pathogenesis of depression would promote the development of novel treatment and provide effective targets for antidepressant drugs. In this study, proteomics analysis showed that the expression level of phosphatase and actin regulator 4 (Phactr4) was significantly increased in the CA1 hippocampus of depressed rats. The upregulated Phactr4 might induce dysfunction of the synaptic structure via suppressing the p-LIMK/p-Cofilin signaling pathway, and promote neuroinflammation via activating the NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway, which ultimately contributes to the pathogenesis of depression. In contrast, the downregulation of Phactr4 in hippocampal CA1 of depressed rats alleviated depression-like behaviors, along with reducing neuroinflammation and improving synaptic plasticity. In conclusion, these findings provide evidence that Phactr4 plays an important role in regulating neuroinflammatory response and impairment of synaptic plasticity, effects seem to involve in the pathogenesis of depression, and Phactr4 may serve as a potential target for antidepressant treatment.

Immunization with a low dose of zymosan A confers resistance to depression-like behavior and neuroinflammatory responses in chronically stressed mice.

Stimulation of the innate immune system prior to stress exposure is a possible strategy to prevent depression under stressful conditions. Based on the innate immune system stimulating activities of zymosan A, we hypothesize that zymosan A may prevent the development of chronic stress-induced depression-like behavior. Our results showed that a single injection of zymosan A 1 day before stress exposure at a dose of 2 or 4 mg/kg, but not at a dose of 1 mg/kg, prevented the development of depression-like behaviors in mice treated with chronic social defeat stress (CSDS). The prophylactic effect of a single zymosan A injection (2 mg/kg) on CSDS-induced depression-like behaviors disappeared when the time interval between zymosan A and stress exposure was extended from 1 day or 5 days to 10 days, which was rescued by a second zymosan A injection 10 days after the first zymosan A injection and 4 days (4×, once daily) of zymosan A injections 10 days before stress exposure. Further analysis showed that a single zymosan A injection (2 mg/kg) 1 day before stress exposure could prevent the CSDS-induced increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Inhibition of the innate immune system by pretreatment with minocycline (40 mg/kg) abolished the preventive effect of zymosan A on CSDS-induced depression-like behaviors and CSDS-induced increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines in the brain. These results suggest that activation of the innate immune system triggered by zymosan A prevents the depression-like behaviors and neuroinflammatory responses in the brain induced by chronic stress.

Antidepressant-like effects of hyperoside on chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice: Gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids

BackgroundThe antidepressant effect of hyperoside (HYP), which is the main component of Hypericum perforatum, is not established. This study aimed to determine the effects of HYP on depression. MethodsThe antidepressant-like effect of HYP was studied in mice induced by chronic restraint stress (CRS). The effects of HYP on behavior, inflammation, neurotransmitters, gut microbiota, and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) were studied in CRS mice. ResultsHYP improved depressive-like behavior in mice induced by CRS. Nissl staining analysis showed that HYP improved neuronal damage in CRS mice. Western blot (WB) analysis showed that HYP increased the expression levels of BDNF and PSD95 in the hippocampus of CRS mice. The results of ELISA showed that HYP down-regulated the expression levels of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and CORT in the hippocampus, blood, and intestinal tissues of mice and up-regulated the expression levels of 5-HT and BDNF. Hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining results indicate that HYP can improve the intestinal histopathological injury of CRS mice. The results of 16S rRNA demonstrated that HYP attenuated the dysbiosis of the gut microbiota of depressed mice, along with altering the concentration of SCFAs. LimitationsIn the present study, direct evidence that HYP improves depressive behaviors via gut microbiota and SCFAs is lacking, and only female mice were evaluated, which limits the understanding of the effects of HYP on both sexes. ConclusionsHYP can improve CRS-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice, which is associated with regulating the gut microbiota and SCFAs concentration.

Obligatory role of microglia-mobilized hippocampal CREB-BDNF signaling in the prophylactic effect of β-glucan on chronic stress-induced depression-like behaviors in mice

Our previous studies have reported that pre-stimulation of microglia before stress stimulation is a possible strategy to prevent depression-like phenotypes; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying this effect are still unclear. Here, we used β-glucan, a polysaccharide from Saccharomyces cerevisiae with immunomodulatory activities that cannot elicit pro-inflammatory responses in microglia, to address this issue. Our results showed that a single injection of β-glucan one day before stress exposure dose-dependently prevented the depression-like behaviors triggered by chronic unpredictable stress (CUS), which peaked at 20 mg/kg and prevented the impairment of hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling, a pathological process critical for the progression of depression-like phenotypes. Inhibition of BDNF signaling by infusion of an anti-BDNF antibody into the hippocampus, knock-in of the mutant BDNF Val68Met allele, or blockade of the BDNF receptor in the hippocampus abolished the preventive effect of β-glucan on CUS-induced depression-like behaviors. Further analysis showed that cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB)-mediated increase of BDNF expression in the hippocampus was essential for the prevention of depression-like phenotypes by β-glucan. Pretreatment with minocycline or PLX3397 before β-glucan injection to suppress microglia abolished the preventive effect of β-glucan on impaired CREB-BDNF signaling in the hippocampus and depression-like behaviors in CUS mice. These results suggest that an increase in hippocampal BDNF following CREB activation triggered by β-glucan-induced microglia stimulation and subsequent TrkB signaling mediates the preventive effect of β-glucan on depression. β-Glucan may be a more suitable immunostimulant for the prevention of depression due to its inability to promote pro-inflammatory responses in microglia.

Ghrelin/GHSR signaling in the lateral septum ameliorates chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors

Ghrelin is a gastrointestinal hormone on feeding and metabolism regulation, and acts through its receptor-growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR), which is widely distributed throughout the central nervous system. Recent studies have suggested that ghrelin plays an important role in the regulation of depression, but the underlying mechanisms remain uncertain. Lateral septum (LS) is a critical brain region in modulating depression. Therefore, we investigated the role of ghrelin/GHSR signaling in the LS on the depressive-like behaviors of mice under conditions of chronic stress by using behavioral tests, neuropharmacology, and molecular biology techniques. We found that infusion of ghrelin into the LS produced antidepressant-like responses in mice. Activation of LS GABAergic neurons was involved in the antidepressant effect of ghrelin. Importantly, GHSR was highly expressed and distributed in the LS neurons. Blockade of GHSR in the LS reversed the ghrelin-induced antidepressant-like effects. Molecular knockdown of GHSR in the LS induced depressive-like symptoms in mice. Furthermore, administration of ghrelin into the LS alleviated depressive-like behaviors induced by chronic social defeat stress (CSDS). Consistent with the neuropharmacological results, overexpression of GHSR in the LS reversed CSDS-induced depressive-like behaviors. Our findings clarify a key role for ghrelin/GHSR signaling in the regulation of chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors, which could provide new strategies for the treatment of depression.

Mobilization of the innate immune response by a specific immunostimulant β-glucan confers resistance to chronic stress-induced depression-like behavior by preventing neuroinflammatory responses

Pre-stimulation of the innate immune response is an effective strategy to prevent depression-like phenotypes in animals. However, the use of conventional immunostimulants may cause adverse effects. Therefore, the search for agents that stimulate the innate immune response but do not induce a pro-inflammatory response could be a new research direction for the prevention of depression. β-glucan is a polysaccharide from Saccharomyces cerevisiae with unique immunomodulatory activity in microglia without eliciting a pro-inflammatory response that could lead to tissue damage. This suggests that β-glucan may be a suitable drug that can be used to prevent depression-like phenotypes. Our results showed that a single injection of β-glucan 1 day before stress exposure at a dose of 10 or 20 mg/kg, but notat a dose of 5 mg/kg, prevented depression-like behavior in mice treated with chronic unpredictable stress (CUS). This effect of β-glucan disappeared when the time interval between β-glucan and stress was extended from 1 day or 5 days to 10 days, which was rescued by a second injection 10 days after the first injection or by a repeated injection (4×, once daily) 10 days before stress exposure. A single β-glucan injection (20 mg/kg) 1 day before stress exposure prevented the CUS-induced increase in brain pro-inflammatory cytokines, and inhibition of the innate immune response by minocycline (40 mg/kg) abolished the preventive effect of β-glucan on CUS-induced depression-like behaviors and neuroinflammatory responses. These results suggest that β-glucan may prevent chronic stress-induced depression-like phenotypes and neuroinflammatory responses by stimulating the innate immune response.

Enhanced TARP-γ8-PSD-95 coupling in excitatory neurons contributes to the rapid antidepressant-like action of ketamine in male mice

Ketamine produces rapid antidepressant effects at sub-anesthetic dosage through early and sustained activation of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors (AMPARs), however, the exact molecular mechanism still remains unclear. Transmembrane AMPAR regulatory protein-γ8 (TARP-γ8) is identified as one of AMPAR auxiliary subunits, which controls assemblies, surface trafficking and gating of AMPARs. Here, we show that ketamine rescues both depressive-like behaviors and the decreased AMPARs-mediated neurotransmission by recruitment of TARP-γ8 at the postsynaptic sites in the ventral hippocampus of stressed male mice. Furthermore, the rapid antidepressant effects of ketamine are abolished by selective blockade of TARP-γ8-containing AMPAR or uncoupling of TARP-γ8 from PSD-95. Overexpression of TARP-γ8 reverses chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors and attenuation of AMPARs-mediated neurotransmission. Conversely, knockdown of TARP-γ8 in excitatory neurons prevents the rapid antidepressant effects of ketamine.

Fermented mixed grain ameliorates chronic stress-induced depression-like behavior and memory deficit.

Fermented mixed grain (FG) has beneficial anti-cancer, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, we investigated the effects of FG on gut inflammation, brain dysfunction, and anxiety/depression-like behavior induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) in mice. Mice were administered mixed grain or FG for 3weeks and were then exposed to UCMS for 4weeks. FG administration ameliorated stress-induced anxiety/despair-like behavior. FG administration also prevented UCMS-induced memory impairment. Additionally, the mRNA levels of 5-HTR1A and IL-6 were restored to normal levels in the brains of FG-administered mice. FG administration also inhibited intestinal damage in stressed mice compared with that in the UCMS (without FG) group. These results suggest that FG can alleviate stress-induced intestinal damage, brain dysfunction, and cognitive impairment.

Intranasal administration of lipopolysaccharide reverses chronic stress-induced depression-like behavior in mice by microglial stimulation

We recently reported that intraperitoneal injection of a low dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) reversed depression-like behavior in mice induced by chronic stress by stimulating microglia in the hippocampus. In this study, we found that a single intranasal administration of LPS at a dose of 5 or 10 μg/mouse, but not at a dose of 1 μg/mouse, rapidly reversed depression-like behavior in mice stimulated with chronic unpredictable stress (CUS). In the time-dependent experiment, a single intranasal administration of LPS (10 μg/mouse) reversed CUS-induced depression-like behavior in mice 5 and 8 h but not 3 h after drug administration. The antidepressant effect of a single intranasal LPS administration (10 μg/mouse) lasted at least 10 days and disappeared 14 days after administration. Fourteen days after the first intranasal LPS administration, a second intranasal LPS administration (10 μg/mouse) still reversed the increased immobility time in TST and FST and the decreased sucrose uptake in SPT in CUS mice, which again exhibited depression-like behaviors 5 h after LPS administration. The antidepressant effect of intranasal LPS administration was dependent on microglial activation, because inhibition of microglia by pretreatment with minocycline (40 mg/kg) or depletion of microglia by pretreatment with PLX3397 (290 mg/kg) prevented the antidepressant effect of intranasal LPS administration in CUS mice. These results suggest that stimulation of the microglia-mediated innate immune response by intranasal administration of LPS can produce rapid and sustained antidepressant effects in animals under chronic stress conditions.

Activation of Hippocampal Microglia Mediates Chronic Stress-induced Depression-like Behavior in Rats with Ischemic Stroke

Activation of Hippocampal Microglia Mediates Chronic Stress-induced Depression-like Behavior in Rats with Ischemic Stroke

Nonerythropoietic Erythropoietin Mimetic Peptide ARA290 Ameliorates Chronic Stress-Induced Depression-Like Behavior and Inflammation in Mice

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a highly prevalent psychiatric disorder. But the treatment of depression remains challenging. Anti-inflammatory treatments frequently produce antidepressant effects. EPO-derived helix-B peptide ARA290 has been reported to retain the anti-inflammatory and tissue-protective functions of EPO without erythropoiesis-stimulating effects. The effects of ARA290 on MDD remain elusive. This study established chronic unpredictable mild stress and chronic social defeat stress mouse models. Daily administration of ARA290 during chronic stress induction in two mouse models ameliorated depression-like behavior, similar to fluoxetine. With marginal effects on peripheral blood hemoglobin and red cells, ARA290 and fluoxetine reversed chronic stress-induced increased frequencies and/or numbers of CD11b+Ly6Ghi neutrophils and CD11b+Ly6Chi monocytes in the bone marrow and meninges. Furthermore, both drugs reversed chronic stress-induced microglia activation. Thus, ARA290 ameliorated chronic stress-induced depression-like behavior in mice through, at least partially, its anti-inflammatory effects.

Chronic social defeat stress increases the amounts of 12-lipoxygenase lipid metabolites in the nucleus accumbens of stress-resilient mice

Severe and prolonged social stress induces mood and cognitive dysfunctions and precipitates major depression. Neuroinflammation has been associated with chronic stress and depression. Rodent studies showed crucial roles of a few inflammation-related lipid mediators for chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors. Despite an increasing number of lipid mediators identified, systematic analyses of synthetic pathways of lipid mediators in chronic stress models have not been performed. Using LC–MS/MS, here we examined the effects of chronic social defeat stress on multiple synthetic pathways of lipid mediators in brain regions associated with stress susceptibility in mice. Chronic social defeat stress increased the amounts of 12-lipoxygenase (LOX) metabolites, 12-HETE and 12-HEPE, specifically in the nucleus accumbens 1 week, but not immediately, after the last stress exposure. The increase was larger in stress-resilient mice than stress-susceptible mice. The S isomer of 12-HETE was selectively increased in amount, indicating the role of 12S-LOX activity. Among the enzymes known to have 12S-LOX activity, only Alox12 mRNA was reliably detected in the brain and enriched in brain endothelial cells. These findings suggest that chronic social stress induces a late increase in the amounts of 12S-LOX metabolites derived from the brain vasculature in the nucleus accumbens in a manner associated with stress resilience.

Aging Promotes Chronic Stress-Induced Depressive-Like Behavior by Activating NLRP1 Inflammasome-Driven Inflammatory Signaling in Mice.

NLRP1 inflammasome has been reported to participate in many neurological disorders. Our previous study has demonstrated that NLRP1 inflammasome is implicated in chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice. Age has been reported to be related to depression. Here we examine whether NLRP1 inflammasome is involved in the effect of age on depressive disorder. Two chronic stress stimuli, chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) and repeat social defeat stress (RSDS), were used to establish a depression model in mice of different ages. We found that aged mice exhibited worse depressive-like behaviors and locomotor activity compared to young mice. Interestingly, the expression of hippocampal NLRP1 inflammasome complexes and the levels of the inflammatory cytokines were increased in an age-dependent manner. Also, chronic stress-induced increase in the expression of the hippocampal chemokine C-X-C motif ligand 1 (CXCL1), and its cognate receptor, CXC-motif receptor 2 (CXCR2), was more remarkable in aged mice than that in young mice. Moreover, aged mice exhibited lower hippocampal BDNF levels compared to young mice. Hippocampal Nlrp1a knockdown reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the expression of CXCL1/CXCR2, restored BDNF levels, and alleviated chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors in aged mice. Our results suggest that NLRP1 inflammasome-CXCL1/CXCR2-BDNF signaling contributes to the effect of age on chronic stress-induced depressive-like behavior in mice.

Persimmon leaf extract alleviates chronic social defeat stress-induced depressive-like behaviors by preventing dendritic spine loss via inhibition of serotonin reuptake in mice

BackgroundFresh or dried Persimmon leaves (Diospyros kaki Thunb.) exhibit preventive effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. However, their antidepressant effects and underlying mechanisms are unclear. Thus, we investigated mechanisms responsible for Persimmon leaf extract (PLE) activity on chronic social defeat stress (CSDS)-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice.MethodsCSDS was used as a mouse model of depression. We performed the sucrose preference test (SPT), forced swim test (FST), and tail suspension test (TST) to identify depressive-like behavior. Spine density and dendritic morphology were assessed using Golgi staining. Neurochemicals were quantified by microdialysis, doublecortin by immunofluorescence, and cAMP using an ELISA kit. Finally, the levels of cortical proteins of phosphorylated cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), postsynaptic density synapsin-1 and protein 95 (PSD95) were quantified by western blot. 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to detect fecal microbiota.ResultsTreatment of CSDS-subjected mice with PLE (30.0–60.0 mg/kg, i.g.) enhanced sucrose preference, decreased immobility times in the TST and FST but did not affect locomotor activity. Furthermore, persistent social defeat stress decreased dendritic spine density and dendritic length in the brain, as well as decreased PSD95 and synapsin-1 expression. PLE, interestingly, inhibited dendritic spine loss and increased synaptic protein levels. PLE also increased brain levels of 5-HT, cAMP, phosphorylated (p)-CREB, BDNF, PSD95, and synapsin-1 in mice subjected to CSDS. Furthermore, PLE increased their doublecortin-positive cell count in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. CSDS mice represented a distinct fecal microbiota cluster which differed compared with normal C57BL/6J mice, and the phenotype was rescued by PLE.ConclusionsPLE alleviated CSDS-induced depressive behaviors and spinal damage by suppressing serotonin reuptake and activating the cAMP/CREB/BDNF signaling pathway. Simultaneously, PLE influenced the composition of the fecal microbiota in CSDS-subjected mice.

Stress during the COVID-19 pandemic - impact on neuroplasticity

Introduction The world’s population has been exposed to traumatic events and high levels of stress due to the ongoing COVID-19 outbreak. Stress is known currently as a universal experience, but the concept was first defined in 1936 by Hans Selye. It has been shown that stress is associated with impairments in neuroplasticity (e.g. neuronal atrophy and synaptic loss in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex) and has a crucial role in almost all mental disorders.ObjectivesIn this paper we aim to highlight the recent theoretical and experimental advances in neuroscience regarding stress induced neuroplasticity.MethodsWe analyzed scientific literature written in English and published between 2019-2021. We used the electronic portal PubMed-NCBI.ResultsIn the last few years, molecular and cellular studies on animal models of stress related and stress-induced psychopathologies revealed alterations in gene expression, micro ARNs expression, as well as in intracellular signaling pathways that mediate the stress induced adaptations. These findings have led to new theories regarding depression and anxiety in the molecular neurobiology field. It has been shown that stress reduces BDNF expression inducing neuronal atrophy in various brain areas. Contrastingly, other studies have demonstrated that chronic antidepressant treatment increases BDNF expression. Furthermore, a crucial role has been assigned to miRNAs in the development of chronic stress-induced depression-like behavior and neuroplasticity.Conclusions We hope that this paper will increase interest in the field of stress induced cellular and molecular changes. More research needs to be pursued in order to achieve a deeper understanding of the pathophysiology of stress-induced mental disorders.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

Indole-3-Carbinol Selectively Prevents Chronic Stress-Induced Depression-but not Anxiety-Like Behaviors via Suppressing Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Production and Oxido-Nitrosative Stress in the Brain.

Indole-3-carbinol (I3C), a phytochemical enriched in most cruciferous vegetables, has been shown to display various biological activities such as anti-oxidative stress, anti-inflammation, and anti-carcinogenesis. In this study, we investigated the regulatory effect of I3C on chronic stress-induced behavioral abnormalities in mice. Results showed that repeated I3C treatment at the dose of 10, 30, and 60 mg/kg prevented chronic social defeat stress (CSDS)-induced behavioral abnormalities in the tail suspension test, forced swimming test, sucrose preference test, and social interaction test in mice, and did not affect CSDS-induced behavioral abnormalities in the elevated plus maze, light-dark test, and open-field test, suggesting that the I3C treatment selectively prevents the onset of depression- but not anxiety-like behaviors in chronically stressed mice. Further analysis demonstrated that repeated I3C treatment (60 mg/kg, 10 days) prevented CSDS-induced increases in levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) mRNA and protein, but did not affect CSDS-induced decreases in levels of IL-4, IL-10, and Ym-1 mRNA and/or protein in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, suggesting that I3C can selectively prevent chronic stress-induced pro-inflammatory but not anti-inflammatory responses in the brain. Further analysis showed that repeated I3C treatment (60 mg/kg, 10 days) prevented CSDS-induced increases in levels of nitrite and malondialdehyde (MDA), decreases in contents of glutathione (GSH), and decreases in levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. These results demonstrated that I3C selectively prevents chronic stress-induced depression-like behaviors in mice likely through suppressing neuroinflammation and oxido-nitrosative stress in the brain.

New Insights Into the Pivotal Role of CREB-Regulated Transcription Coactivator 1 in Depression and Comorbid Obesity.

Depression and obesity are major public health concerns, and there is mounting evidence that they share etiopathophysiological mechanisms. The neurobiological pathways involved in both mood and energy balance regulation are complex, multifactorial and still incompletely understood. As a coactivator of the pleiotropic transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1) has recently emerged as a novel regulator of neuronal plasticity and brain functions, while CRTC1 dysfunction has been associated with neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases. This review focuses on recent evidence emphasizing the critical role of CRTC1 in the neurobiology of depression and comorbid obesity. We discuss the role of CRTC1 downregulation in mediating chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors, and antidepressant response in the light of the previously characterized Crtc1 knockout mouse model of depression. The putative role of CRTC1 in the alteration of brain energy homeostasis observed in depression is also discussed. Finally, we highlight rodent and human studies supporting the critical involvement of CRTC1 in depression-associated obesity.

Jia Wei Xiao Yao San ameliorates chronic stress-induced depression-like behaviors in mice by regulating the gut microbiome and brain metabolome in relation to purine metabolism

BackgroundThe pathogenesis of depression remains largely unknown. Accumulating evidence demonstrates the existence of a complex relationship between gut microbiome composition and brain functions. Jia Wei Xiao Yao San (JWXYS) is considered a potential antidepressant. However, the pharmacological mechanisms of JWXYS have not yet been clarified. PurposeThis study aimed to explore the effects of JWXYS on chronic stress-induced depression-like behaviors in mice. MethodsA chronic restraint stress mouse model of depression was established. JWXYS was administered, and the responses of these mice to treatment were evaluated through several behavioral tests. The activity of astrocytes and microglia was detected by specific fluorescent labels. Inflammatory cytokines were quantified in intestinal and cerebral tissues. An integrated approach with full-length 16S rRNA sequencing and different types of untargeted metabolomics was conducted to investigate the relationship between the gut microbiome at the species level, metabolic brain functions, and JWXYS. ResultsWe found that behavioral symptoms were associated with the relative abundance of Lactobacillus animalis. After JWXYS treatment, the relative abundance of Ileibacterium valens with enzymes potentially involved in purine metabolism was also described. The activation of astrocytes and microglia was negatively correlated with the relative abundance of L. animalis. Combined with network pharmacological analysis, several targets predicted based on JWXYS treatment focused on purine metabolism, which was also enriched from cerebral metabolites regulated by JWXYS. ConclusionOur study suggests that L. animalis is involved in depression-like behaviors in mice. JWXYS increases the abundance of I. valens with potential enzymes in relation to cerebral purine metabolism, which is positively correlated with the activation of astrocytes in the amygdala.

Periaqueductal gray is required for controlling chronic stress-induced depression-like behavior

BackgroundEnduring exposure to psychological stress is associated with an elevated risk of major depressive disorder (MDD). There is an enormous need to investigate the unexplored mechanisms of MDD. We examined whether pain-free stress alters synaptic transmission, causing depression-like behaviors in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG), a brain stem nucleus that controls stress-related depression-like behavior. MethodsIn the current study, we studied neuronal changes in the vlPAG and behavioral transforms using electrophysiological recordings, behavioral tests, and pharmacological approaches. ResultsWe found that chronic restraint stress (CRS) diminished glutamatergic transmission in the vlPAG, leading to maladaptive behavioral despair and anhedonia in mice demonstrated by the forced swimming test (FST), tail suspension test (TST) and female urine sniffing test (FUST). Moreover, CRS increased behavioral hypersensitivity shown by the von Frey test. Bath perfusion with the rapid-acting antidepressant (2R,6R)-hydroxynorketamine (HNK) increased both the frequency and amplitude of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) in vlPAG neurons in the CRS and control groups. Functionally, (2R,6R)-HNK directly enhanced the action potential firing rate in vlPAG neurons. Behaviorally, intravlPAG microinjection of (2R,6R)-HNK alleviated chronic restraint stress-induced depression-like behaviors and behavioral hypersensitivity. ConclusionsThese results demonstrate that psychological stress-elicited depression-like behavior is related to a remarkable decrease in glutamatergic transmission in the vlPAG. The maladaptive behaviors are attributed to hypoactivity of glutamatergic neurons in the vlPAG, and direct enhancement of glutamatergic neuronal activity in the vlPAG rescues depression-like behaviors. The present results prove that vlPAG is critical for controlling stress-induced depression-like behaviors through alteration of glutamatergic transmission.

Monophosphoryl Lipid A Tolerance Against Chronic Stress-Induced Depression-Like Behaviors in Mice.

BackgroundsOur recent studies reported that a single injection with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) before stress exposure prevents depression-like behaviors in stressed mice. Monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) is a derivative of LPS that lacks the undesirable properties of LPS. We hypothesize that MPL can exert a prophylactic effect on depression.MethodsThe experimental mice were pre-injected with MPL before stress exposure. Depression in mice was induced through chronic social defeat stress (CSDS). Behavioral tests were conducted to identify depression-like behaviors. Real-time polymerase chain reaction and biochemical assays were performed to examine the gene and protein expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines.ResultsA single MPL injection 1 day before stress exposure at the dosages of 400, 800, and 1600 μg/kg but not 200 μg/kg prevented CSDS-induced depression-like behaviors in mice. This effect of MPL, however, vanished with the extension of the interval time between drug injection and stress exposure from 1 day or 5 days to 10 days, which was rescued by a second MPL injection 10 days after the first MPL injection or by a 4× MPL injection 10 days before stress exposure. A single MPL injection (800 μg/kg) before stress exposure prevented CSDS-induced increases in the gene expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Pre-inhibiting the innate immune stimulation by minocycline pretreatment (40 mg/kg) abrogated the preventive effect of MPL on CSDS-induced depression-like behaviors and neuroinflammatory responses in animal brains.ConclusionsMPL, through innate immune stimulation, prevents stress-induced depression-like behaviors in mice by preventing neuroinflammatory responses.