Protein-chromatin Interactions Research Articles

Amoebae as training grounds for microbial pathogens.

Grazing of amoebae on microorganisms represents one of the oldest predator-prey dynamic relationships in nature. It represents a genetic "melting pot" for an ancient and continuous multi-directional inter- and intra-kingdom horizontal gene transfer between amoebae and its preys, intracellular microbial residents, endosymbionts, and giant viruses, which has shaped the evolution, selection, and adaptation of microbes that evade degradation by predatory amoeba. Unicellular phagocytic amoebae are thought to be the ancient ancestors of macrophages with highly conserved eukaryotic processes. Selection and evolution of microbes within amoeba through their evolution to target highly conserved eukaryotic processes have facilitated the expansion of their host range to mammals, causing various infectious diseases. Legionella and environmental Chlamydia harbor an immense number of eukaryotic-like proteins that are involved in ubiquitin-related processes or are tandem repeats-containing proteins involved in protein-protein and protein-chromatin interactions. Some of these eukaryotic-like proteins exhibit novel domain architecture and novel enzymatic functions absent in mammalian cells, such as ubiquitin ligases, likely acquired from amoebae. Mammalian cells and amoebae may respond similarly to microbial factors that target highly conserved eukaryotic processes, but mammalian cells may undergo an accidental response to amoeba-adapted microbial factors. We discuss specific examples of microbes that have evolved to evade amoeba predation, including the bacterial pathogens- Legionella, Chlamydia, Coxiella, Rickettssia, Francisella, Mycobacteria, Salmonella, Bartonella, Rhodococcus, Pseudomonas, Vibrio, Helicobacter, Campylobacter, and Aliarcobacter. We also discuss the fungi Cryptococcus, and Asperigillus, as well as amoebae mimiviruses/giant viruses. We propose that amoeba-microbe interactions will continue to be a major "training ground" for the evolution, selection, adaptation, and emergence of microbial pathogens equipped with unique pathogenic tools to infect mammalian hosts. However, our progress will continue to be highly dependent on additional genomic, biochemical, and cellular data of unicellular eukaryotes.

Interrogating epigenetic mechanisms with chemically customized chromatin.

Genetic and genomic techniques have proven incredibly powerful for identifying and studying molecular players implicated in the epigenetic regulation of DNA-templated processes such as transcription. However, achieving a mechanistic understanding of how these molecules interact with chromatin to elicit a functional output is non-trivial, owing to the tremendous complexity of the biochemical networks involved. Advances in protein engineering have enabled the reconstitution of 'designer' chromatin containing customized post-translational modification patterns, which, when used in conjunction with sophisticated biochemical and biophysical methods, allow many mechanistic questions to be addressed. In this Review, we discuss how such tools complement established 'omics' techniques to answer fundamental questions on chromatin regulation, focusing on chromatin mark establishment and protein-chromatin interactions.

Development of multifunctional synthetic nucleosomes to interrogate chromatin-mediated protein interactions

Various proteins bind to chromatin to regulate DNA and its associated processes such as replication, transcription, and damage repair. The identification and characterization of these chromatin-associating proteins remain a challenge, as their interactions with chromatin often occur within the context of the local nucleosome or chromatin structure, which makes conventional peptide-based strategies unsuitable. Here, we developed a simple and robust protein labeling chemistry to prepare synthetic multifunctional nucleosomes that carry a photoreactive group, a biorthogonal handle, and a disulfide moiety to examine chromatin-protein interactions in a nucleosomal context. Using the prepared protein- and nucleosome-based photoaffinity probes, we examined a number of protein-protein and protein-nucleosome interactions. In particular, we (i) mapped the binding sites for the HMGN2-nucleosome interaction, (ii) provided the evidence for transition between the active and poised states of DOT1L in recognizing H3K79 within the nucleosome, and (iii) identified OARD1 and LAP2α as nucleosome acidic patch-associating proteins. This study provides powerful and versatile chemical tools for interrogating chromatin-associating proteins.

Simulating the chromatin-mediated phase separation of model proteins with multiple domains

We perform simulations of a system containing simple model proteins and a polymer representing chromatin. We study the interplay between protein-protein and protein-chromatin interactions, and the resulting condensates that arise due to liquid-liquid phase separation, or a via a “bridging-induced attraction” mechanism. For proteins that interact multivalently, we obtain a phase diagram which includes liquid-like droplets, droplets with absorbed polymer, and coated polymer regimes. Of particular interest is a regime where protein droplets only form due to interaction with the polymer; here, unlike a standard phase separating system, droplet density rather than size varies with the overall protein concentration. We also observe that protein dynamics within droplets slow down as chromatin is absorbed. If the protein-protein interactions have a strictly limited valence, fractal or gel-like condensates are instead observed. A specific example that inspired our model is heterochromatin protein 1, or HP1. Recent in vivo experiments have shown that HP1 exhibits similar droplet size buffering behavior as our simulations. Overall, our results provide biologically relevant insights into the general nature of protein-chromatin condensates in living cells.

SUMO orchestrates multiple alternative DNA-protein crosslink repair pathways.

Endogenous metabolites, environmental agents, and therapeutic drugs promote formation of covalent DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs). Persistent DPCs compromise genome integrity and are eliminated by multiple repair pathways. Aberrant Top1-DNA crosslinks, or Top1ccs, are processed by Tdp1 and Wss1 functioning in parallel pathways in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It remains obscure how cells choose between diverse mechanisms of DPC repair. Here, we show that several SUMO biogenesis factors (Ulp1, Siz2, Slx5, and Slx8) control repair of Top1cc or an analogous DPC lesion. Genetic analysis reveals that SUMO promotes Top1cc processing in the absence of Tdp1 but has an inhibitory role if cells additionally lack Wss1. In the tdp1Δ wss1Δ mutant, the E3 SUMO ligase Siz2 stimulates sumoylation in the vicinity of the DPC, but not SUMO conjugation to Top1. This Siz2-dependent sumoylation inhibits alternative DPC repair mechanisms, including Ddi1. Our findings suggest that SUMO tunes available repair pathways to facilitate faithful DPC repair.

Concepts to Reveal Parvovirus-Nucleus Interactions.

Parvoviruses are small single-stranded (ss) DNA viruses, which replicate in the nucleoplasm and affect both the structure and function of the nucleus. The nuclear stage of the parvovirus life cycle starts at the nuclear entry of incoming capsids and culminates in the successful passage of progeny capsids out of the nucleus. In this review, we will present past, current, and future microscopy and biochemical techniques and demonstrate their potential in revealing the dynamics and molecular interactions in the intranuclear processes of parvovirus infection. In particular, a number of advanced techniques will be presented for the detection of infection-induced changes, such as DNA modification and damage, as well as protein–chromatin interactions.

Mediator Recruits the Cohesin Loader Scc2 to RNA Pol II Transcribed Genes and Promotes Sister Chromatid Cohesion

The ring-like cohesin complex plays an essential role in chromosome segregation, organization, and double-strand break repair through its ability to bring two DNA double helices together. Scc2 (NIPBL in humans) together with Scc4 function as the loader of cohesin onto chromosomes. The RSC complex has been shown to act as a chromatin adapter, facilitating localization of the Scc2-Scc4 cohesin loader. Here we identify a broad range of Scc2- chromatin protein interactions that are evolutionarily conserved, consistent with a multifactorial adaptor landscape. We reveal a role for one complex, Mediator, in recruitment of the cohesin loader. Med14, a subunit of the Mediator complex, is a high copy suppressor of Scc2 mutants. Physical and genetic interactions between Scc2 and Mediator are functionally substantiated in direct recruitment and cohesion assays. Mediator can provide recruitment function for Scc2 based on a chromatin tethering experiment. Depletion of Med14 results in defective sister chromatid cohesion and decreased binding of Scc2 at RNA Pol II transcribed genes. Previous work has suggested that Mediator, Nipbl, and cohesin connect enhancers and promoters of active mammalian genes. Our studies in yeast suggest an evolutionarily conserved fundamental role for Mediator in direct recruitment of Scc2 to RNA pol II transcribed genes.

Modes of phase separation affecting chromatin regulation.

It has become evident that chromatin in cell nuclei is organized at multiple scales. Significant effort has been devoted to understanding the connection between the nuclear environment and the diverse biological processes taking place therein. A fundamental question is how cells manage to orchestrate these reactions, both spatially and temporally. Recent insights into phase-separated membraneless organelles may be the key for answering this. Of the two models that have been proposed for phase-separated entities, one largely depends on chromatin–protein interactions and the other on multivalent protein–protein and/or protein–RNA ones. Each has its own characteristics, but both would be able to, at least in part, explain chromatin and transcriptional organization. Here, we attempt to give an overview of these two models and their studied examples to date, before discussing the forces that could govern phase separation and prevent it from arising unrestrainedly.

Chemical Biology of Protein N‐Terminal Methyltransferases

Protein α‐N‐terminal methylation is catalyzed by protein N‐terminal methyltransferases. The prevalent occurrence of this methylation in ribosomes, myosin, and histones implies its function in protein–protein interactions. Although its full spectrum of function has not yet been outlined, recent discoveries have revealed the emerging roles of α‐N‐terminal methylation in protein–chromatin interactions, DNA damage repair, and chromosome segregation. Herein, an overview of the discovery of protein N‐terminal methyltransferases and functions of α‐N‐terminal methylation is presented. In addition, substrate recognition, mechanisms, and inhibition of N‐terminal methyltransferases are reviewed. Opportunities and gaps in protein α‐N‐terminal methylation are also discussed.

Regulatory variants: from detection to predicting impact.

Variants within non-coding genomic regions can greatly affect disease. In recent years, increasing focus has been given to these variants, and how they can alter regulatory elements, such as enhancers, transcription factor binding sites and DNA methylation regions. Such variants can be considered regulatory variants. Concurrently, much effort has been put into establishing international consortia to undertake large projects aimed at discovering regulatory elements in different tissues, cell lines and organisms, and probing the effects of genetic variants on regulation by measuring gene expression. Here, we describe methods and techniques for discovering disease-associated non-coding variants using sequencing technologies. We then explain the computational procedures that can be used for annotating these variants using the information from the aforementioned projects, and prediction of their putative effects, including potential pathogenicity, based on rule-based and machine learning approaches. We provide the details of techniques to validate these predictions, by mapping chromatin–chromatin and chromatin–protein interactions, and introduce Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-Associated Protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) technology, which has already been used in this field and is likely to have a big impact on its future evolution.We also give examples of regulatory variants associated with multiple complex diseases. This review is aimed at bioinformaticians interested in the characterization of regulatory variants, molecular biologists and geneticists interested in understanding more about the nature and potential role of such variants from a functional point of views, and clinicians who may wish to learn about variants in non-coding genomic regions associated with a given disease and find out what to do next to uncover how they impact on the underlying mechanisms.

Dynamic chromatin accessibility modeled by Markov process of randomly-moving molecules in the 3D genome.

Chromatin three-dimensional (3D) structure plays critical roles in gene expression regulation by influencing locus interactions and accessibility of chromatin regions. Here we propose a Markov process model to derive a chromosomal equilibrium distribution of randomly-moving molecules as a functional consequence of spatially organized genome 3D structures. The model calculates steady-state distributions (SSD) from Hi-C data as quantitative measures of each chromatin region's dynamic accessibility for transcription factors and histone modification enzymes. Different from other Hi-C derived features such as compartment A/B and interaction hubs, or traditional methods measuring chromatin accessibility such as DNase-seq and FAIRE-seq, SSD considers both chromatin–chromatin and protein–chromatin interactions. Through our model, we find that SSD could capture the chromosomal equilibrium distributions of activation histone modifications and transcription factors. Compared with compartment A/B, SSD has higher correlations with the binding of these histone modifications and transcription factors. In addition, we find that genes located in high SSD regions tend to be expressed at higher level. Furthermore, we track the change of genome organization during stem cell differentiation, and propose a two-stage model to explain the dynamic change of SSD and gene expression during differentiation, where chromatin organization genes first gain chromatin accessibility and are expressed before lineage-specific genes do. We conclude that SSD is a novel and better measure of dynamic chromatin activity and accessibility.

Whole Genome Chromatin IP-Sequencing (ChIP-Seq) in Skeletal Muscle Cells.

Transcriptional control of gene expression in skeletal muscle cell is involved in different processes ranging from muscle formation to regeneration. The identification of an increasing number of transcription factors, co-factors, and histone modifications has been greatly advanced by methods that allow studies of genome-wide chromatin-protein interactions. Chromatin immunoprecipitation with massively parallel DNA sequencing, or ChIP-seq, is a powerful tool for identifying binding sites of TFs/co-factors and histone modifications. The major steps of this technique involve immunoprecipitation of fragmented chromatin, followed by high-throughput sequencing to identify the protein bound regions genome-wide. Here, in this protocol, we will illustrate how the entire ChIP-seq is performed using global H3K27ac profiling in myoblast cells as an example.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Protocol for Histone Modifications and Protein-DNA Binding Analyses in Arabidopsis.

Epigenetic control of plant development via histone modifications is involved in different processes ranging from embryonic development, vegetative development, flowering time control, floral organ development, to pollen tube growth. The identification of an increasing number of epigenetically regulated processes was greatly advanced by methods allowing the survey of genome-wide histone modifications and chromatin-protein interactions. However, genome-wide approaches are too broad to access in detail a large number of histone modifications taking place at a single locus. Here, we provide a robust chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) protocol, allowing in vivo analyses of multiple chromatin modifications and binding of histone modifiers in different plant organs and tissues. This method is quantitative and provides a way to study the dynamic state of chromatin during plant development and also in response to different environmental stimuli.

Abstract A36: Interaction of the MYC oncoprotein with the tumor suppressive SWI/SNF complex member INI1

Abstract The MYC oncogene is a key driver of cellular transformation that is deregulated in more than half of all human cancers. The transcriptional regulatory function of MYC and the wide spectrum of biological processes it mediates are critically tied to its chromatin interactors and epigenetic context. MYC is linked to chromatin remodeling through its interaction with INI1 (SMARCB1/hSNF5/BAF47), a core member of the SWI/SNF complex and a potent tumour suppressor. Recent sequencing efforts in many cancer types also identified frequent mutations in other members of this complex. However, the mechanistic understanding of the SWI/SNF complex in contributing to oncogenesis and its functional and molecular interaction with MYC remain unclear. Herein, we provide a comprehensive characterization of the MYC-INI1 interaction. We demonstrate their direct interaction and extensively delineate their minimal regions of interaction, corresponding to functionally important regions of MYC (leucine zipper) and INI1 (Repeats I and II). Genome-wide analysis reveals that INI1 and other SWI/SNF complex members share significant portions of MYC DNA-binding regions and target genes. Network analysis demonstrates MYC interaction with the SWI/SNF complex and an extended network of shared interactors belonging to additional chromatin regulatory complexes. Collectively, our findings provide significant insight into the interaction of MYC and INI1 at the level of protein-protein and protein-chromatin interactions. Citation Format: William B. Tu, Angelina Stojanova, Romina Ponzielli, Max Kotlyar, Pak-Kei Chan, Paul C. Boutros, Fereshteh Khosravi, Igor Jurisica, Brian Raught, Linda Z. Penn. Interaction of the MYC oncoprotein with the tumor suppressive SWI/SNF complex member INI1. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Special Conference on Myc: From Biology to Therapy; Jan 7-10, 2015; La Jolla, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Mol Cancer Res 2015;13(10 Suppl):Abstract nr A36.

A Correction to the Perspective Titled: “Phosphoinositides as Regulators of Protein-Chromatin Interactions” by K. Viiri, M. Mäki, O. Lohi

The authors correct the phosphate group distances in the figure and legend.

Characterising ChIP-seq binding patterns by model-based peak shape deconvolution

BackgroundChromatin immunoprecipitation combined with massive parallel sequencing (ChIP-seq) is widely used to study protein-chromatin interactions or chromatin modifications at genome-wide level. Sequence reads that accumulate locally at the genome (peaks) reveal loci of selectively modified chromatin or specific sites of chromatin-binding factors. Computational approaches (peak callers) have been developed to identify the global pattern of these sites, most of which assess the deviation from background by applying distribution statistics.ResultsWe have implemented MeDiChISeq, a regression-based approach, which - by following a learning process - defines a representative binding pattern from the investigated ChIP-seq dataset. Using this model MeDiChISeq identifies significant genome-wide patterns of chromatin-bound factors or chromatin modification. MeDiChISeq has been validated for various publicly available ChIP-seq datasets and extensively compared with other peak callers.ConclusionsMeDiChI-Seq has a high resolution when identifying binding events, a high degree of peak-assessment reproducibility in biological replicates, a low level of false calls and a high true discovery rate when evaluated in the context of gold-standard benchmark datasets. Importantly, this approach can be applied not only to ‘sharp’ binding patterns - like those retrieved for transcription factors (TFs) - but also to the broad binding patterns seen for several histone modifications. Notably, we show that at high sequencing depths, MeDiChISeq outperforms other algorithms due to its powerful peak shape recognition capacity which facilitates discerning significant binding events from spurious background enrichment patterns that are enhanced with increased sequencing depths.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-14-834) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

HMGN1 Protein Regulates Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerase-1 (PARP-1) Self-PARylation in Mouse Fibroblasts

In mammalian cells, the nucleosome-binding protein HMGN1 (high mobility group N1) affects the structure and function of chromatin and plays a role in repair of damaged DNA. HMGN1 affects the interaction of DNA repair factors with chromatin and their access to damaged DNA; however, not all of the repair factors affected have been identified. Here, we report that HMGN1 affects the self-poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (i.e., PARylation) of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1), a multifunctional and abundant nuclear enzyme known to recognize DNA lesions and promote chromatin remodeling, DNA repair, and other nucleic acid transactions. The catalytic activity of PARP-1 is activated by DNA with a strand break, and this results in self-PARylation and PARylation of other chromatin proteins. Using cells obtained from Hmgn1(-/-) and Hmgn1(+/+) littermate mice, we find that in untreated cells, loss of HMGN1 protein reduces PARP-1 self-PARylation. A similar result was obtained after MMS treatment of these cells. In imaging experiments after low energy laser-induced DNA damage, less PARylation at lesion sites was observed in Hmgn1(-/-) than in Hmgn1(+/+) cells. The HMGN1 regulation of PARP-1 activity could be mediated by direct protein-protein interaction as HMGN1 and PARP-1 were found to interact in binding assays. Purified HMGN1 was able to stimulate self-PARylation of purified PARP-1, and in experiments with cell extracts, self-PARylation was greater in Hmgn1(+/+) than in Hmgn1(-/-) extract. The results suggest a regulatory role for HMGN1 in PARP-1 activation.

The Rad4TopBP1 ATR-Activation Domain Functions in G1/S Phase in a Chromatin-Dependent Manner

DNA damage checkpoint activation can be subdivided in two steps: initial activation and signal amplification. The events distinguishing these two phases and their genetic determinants remain obscure. TopBP1, a mediator protein containing multiple BRCT domains, binds to and activates the ATR/ATRIP complex through its ATR-Activation Domain (AAD). We show that Schizosaccharomyces pombe Rad4TopBP1 AAD–defective strains are DNA damage sensitive during G1/S-phase, but not during G2. Using lacO-LacI tethering, we developed a DNA damage–independent assay for checkpoint activation that is Rad4TopBP1 AAD–dependent. In this assay, checkpoint activation requires histone H2A phosphorylation, the interaction between TopBP1 and the 9-1-1 complex, and is mediated by the phospho-binding activity of Crb253BP1. Consistent with a model where Rad4TopBP1 AAD–dependent checkpoint activation is ssDNA/RPA–independent and functions to amplify otherwise weak checkpoint signals, we demonstrate that the Rad4TopBP1 AAD is important for Chk1 phosphorylation when resection is limited in G2 by ablation of the resecting nuclease, Exo1. We also show that the Rad4TopBP1 AAD acts additively with a Rad9 AAD in G1/S phase but not G2. We propose that AAD–dependent Rad3ATR checkpoint amplification is particularly important when DNA resection is limiting. In S. pombe, this manifests in G1/S phase and relies on protein–chromatin interactions.

Phosphoinositides as Regulators of Protein-Chromatin Interactions

The molecular function of phospholipids in the nucleus has been only partially elucidated. The upsurge of epigenetic research has contributed to increased interest in nuclear phospholipids, such as phosphoinositides, and their involvement in gene transcription. However, the mechanisms by which phosphoinositides regulate transcription is still unknown at the molecular level. Certain phosphoinositide species can regulate protein-chromatin and protein-nucleic acid interactions, and specific nuclear target proteins link nuclear signaling lipids to gene expression. We propose that a phosphoinositide-mediated detachment of proteins from chromatin is a general biological mechanism that partly underlies the signaling effects of nuclear phosphoinositides.

Loops Determine the Mechanical Properties of Mitotic Chromosomes

We introduce a new polymer model for mitotic chromosomes. The key assumption of the model is the ability of the chromatin fibre to cross-link to itself due to binding proteins. These protein-chromatin interactions are included by a probabilistic and dynamic mechanism. The hypothesis is motivated by the observation of high repulsive forces between ring polymers. We performed computer simulations to validate our model. Our results show that the presence of loops leads to a tight compaction and contributes significantly to the bending rigidity of chromosomes. Moreover, our qualitative prediction of the force elongation behaviour is close to experimental findings. The Dynamic Loop Model presented here indicates that the internal structure of mitotic chromosomes is based on self-organization of the chromatin fibre rather than attachment of chromatin to a protein scaffold. It also shows that the number and size of loops have a strong influence on the mechanical properties. We suggest that changes in the mechanical characteristics of chromosomes in different stages of the cell cycle, for example, can be explained by an altered internal loop structure.