Christmas Bird Count Research Articles

Citizen Science and the Pandemic: A Case Study of the Christmas Bird Count

Citizen science has contributed much to our knowledge of North American birds, with programs like Christmas Bird Count (CBC) providing valuable data on population dynamics, winter distribution, irruption patterns, range expansions, invasion dynamics, community ecology, and the effects of climate change. However, the novel coronavirus pandemic of 2020 had the potential to restrict participation and detrimentally impact the scientific value of 2020 count results. CBC data from throughout North America for 2020 were compared to trends from the previous ten years. Participation was reduced in several ways, including number of counts, number of participants, and spatial distribution of counts. However, based on a subset of states and provinces, number of species recorded was not impacted. Care should be taken when using 2020 CBC data for studies requiring fine-scale geographic resolution.

A case study in citizen environmental humanities: creating a participatory plant story website

Public engagement in crowd-sourced science projects such as iNaturalist or the Audubon Christmas Bird Count is a long-established practice within environmental studies and sciences. As a corollary to these “citizen science” efforts, “citizen humanities” engages public participation in humanities research and/or with humanities tools such as creative writing, photography, art-making, or conducting and recording interviews. In this essay, we outline our work creating a citizen environmental humanities website, Herbaria 3.0, including our motivations, process, and theoretical underpinnings. This project draws upon the critical understanding within environmental studies of the importance of narrative and storytelling for fostering a connection and commitment to environments and nonhuman beings. Situated within the field of environmental humanities, our website solicits, collects, and archives stories about the manifold relationships between plants and people, inviting visitors to read, share, or write their own story for digital publication. The kind of environmental storytelling that results, we argue, can (1) enrich our conceptualization of attachment to places, (2) expand our notion of what “counts” as an encounter with nature, and (3) help us recognize the agency of individual plants. We conclude that similar citizen humanities projects are crucial to the ongoing work of environmental humanities and environmental studies at large, for it is through such public engagement that we can meet the cultural challenges that seeded, and the societal problems occasioned by, ongoing climate change.

Unraveling a century of global change impacts on winter bird distributions in the eastern United States.

One of the most pressing questions in ecology and conservation centers on disentangling the relative impacts of concurrent global change drivers, climate and land-use/land-cover (LULC), on biodiversity. Yet studies that evaluate the effects of both drivers on species' winter distributions remain scarce, hampering our ability to develop full-annual-cycle conservation strategies. Additionally, understanding how groups of species differentially respond to climate versus LULC change is vital for efforts to enhance bird community resilience to future environmental change. We analyzed long-term changes in winter occurrence of 89species across nine bird groups over a 90-year period within the eastern United States using Audubon Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data. We estimated variation in occurrence probability of each group as a function of spatial and temporal variation in winter climate (minimum temperature, cumulative precipitation) and LULC (proportion of group-specific and anthropogenic habitats within CBC circle). We reveal that spatial variation in bird occurrence probability was consistently explained by climate across all nine species groups. Conversely, LULC change explained more than twice the temporal variation (i.e., decadal changes) in bird occurrence probability than climate change on average across groups. This pattern was largely driven by habitat-constrained species (e.g., grassland birds, waterbirds), whereas decadal changes in occurrence probabilities of habitat-unconstrained species (e.g., forest passerines, mixed habitat birds) were equally explained by both climate and LULC changes over the last century. We conclude that climate has generally governed the winter occurrence of avifauna in space and time, while LULC change has played a pivotal role in driving distributional dynamics of species with limited and declining habitat availability. Effective land management will be critical for improving species' resilience to climate change, especially during a season of relative resource scarcity and critical energetic trade-offs.

Increased abundance and range expansion of harlequin ducks Histrionicus histrionicus wintering in Eastern Canada

The eastern population of harlequin duck Histrionicus histrionicus in Canada has been designated a species of special concern since 2001 and as endangered from 1991 to 2001, largely due to low and declining wintering numbers detected in the 1980s. Our objectives were to summarize the current state of knowledge of harlequin duck abundance and distribution in Eastern Canada, and assess trends in wintering abundance across regions over the past 30+ years. Abundance estimates were generated from targeted surveys with thorough spatial coverage of major wintering areas on insular Newfoundland (NL), Nova Scotia (NS), and New Brunswick (NB) between 2015 and 2018, complemented by regional trends estimated from Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data collected at 12 sites across the same wintering range between 1988 and 2021. Overall, targeted surveys indicated that numbers have increased and distributions have expanded beyond historically surveyed regions, particularly in NS. This was supported by trends from CBC data, with steep average increases (mean λ > 1.05) on most CBC circles in Eastern Canada since 1988 or later. Using localized annual rates of mean population change from CBC data to project counts from dedicated surveys, we suggest wintering areas in the provinces of NL, NS, and NB may currently be supporting a combined total of 5682 birds (95% CI 5065-6354) in 2022, well exceeding the recovery target of 3000 individuals listed in the 2007 management plan. Our findings indicate that the eastern population is in recovery, but also emphasize that a consistent, dedicated monitoring program would enable managers to confidently evaluate management actions, and to respond most effectively should regional trends slow or reverse.

Landscape-Scale Effects of Habitat and Weather on Scaled Quail Populations

Scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) have declined over the last half century; however, there is spatial variation within their geographic distribution. Interior populations have increased and peripheral populations have generally decreased. Declines have been attributed to habitat loss and degradation. Scaled quail populations also show interannual fluctuations related to precipitation. Our objective was to determine the relative impact of habitat and weather (i.e., precipitation and temperature) on scaled quail population dynamics. Our hypothesis was that habitat metrics would be more important for decreasing populations whereas weather metrics would be more important for increasing populations. We used publicly available datasets for scaled quail abundance measures (Breeding Bird Survey, Christmas Bird Count), weather (PRISM), and land cover (National Land Cover Data) collected over 3 5-year time periods (1990–1994, 1999–2003, 2009–2013). Data were collected at 2 scales: a route scale (5-km route buffer) and region scale (25-km circular buffer). We developed 25 a priori models that fit into 4 “model classes” (habitat amount, habitat fragmentation, matrix quality, weather). Model selection followed a 2-stage approach, where models were initially evaluated within each individual model class, then top models from each class were evaluated in combination to determine a global model. We used mixed-effects models with a negative binomial response distribution, treating route as a random effect. Weather variables were the primary explanatory factor for increasing populations at both scales. Similarly following our hypothesis, habitat variables were generally the most important for decreasing populations, but only at the route scale; weather variables dominated at the region scale. Both abundance datasets provided similar results and explanatory power (R2 ≈ 0.10 for route scale; R2 ≈ 0.27 for region scale), for both increasing and decreasing populations. Comparisons of land cover variables showed increasing populations to have higher amounts of habitat (p = 0.0028), higher mean patch area of habitat (p = 0.0446), and lower urban cover (p = 0.0287). Our hypothesis that weather variables account for more variation of increasing scaled quail populations was generally supported, likely because of increased amounts of habitat in these areas. However, given the low overall explanatory power of our models, it is likely that other factors such as habitat quality may be more important to scaled quail. Increasing temperature and reduced precipitation associated with climate change are likely to exacerbate scaled quail declines both directly and through continued habitat degradation, even within areas with increasing populations.

Do Citizen Science Methods Identify Regions of High Avian Biodiversity?

Citizen science may offer a way to improve our knowledge of the spatial distribution of biodiversity and endemism, as the data collected by this method can be integrated into existing data sources to provide a more robust understanding of broad scale patterns of species richness. We explored whether data collected by citizen scientists agree on identifying regions of high avian species richness in a well-studied state. We compiled and examined the number of bird species detected in each of the 77 counties of Oklahoma based on published range maps, museum collections, and by five citizen science methods: the USGS Breeding Bird Survey, the Oklahoma Breeding Bird Atlas, eBird, the Oklahoma Winter Bird Atlas, and National Audubon Society Christmas Bird Counts. We also quantified the number of species of conservation concern recorded by each method in each county. A total of 460 species were reported across the state, with the total number of species detected by each method ranging from 40% of this total (Winter Bird Atlas) to 94% of this total (eBird). In general, species totals were poorly correlated across methods, with only six of 21 combinations (28.6%) showing significant correlations. Total species numbers recorded in each county were correlated with human population density and county area, but not with mean annual temperature or precipitation. The total number of species of conservation concern was correlated with the total number of species detected, county area, and precipitation. Most of the citizen science methods examined in this study were not explicitly designed to identify regions of high biodiversity and so efforts to use these methods for this purpose should be employed only cautiously and with a thorough understanding of potential biases.

WEST NILE VIRUS IMPACTS ON BLACK-BILLED MAGPIE POPULATIONS

West Nile Virus (WNV) is an epizootic virus known to effectively kill Black-billed Magpies (Pica hudsonia). After WNV infection of humans appeared in the western United States, Black-billed Magpies birds per party-hours on Christmas Bird Counts (CBC) declined significantly. Trends for both CBC and Breeding Bird Surveys (BBS) shifted from positive before WNV infections of humans to negative during WNV infections, then rebounded to positive after WNV infection declined. Black-billed Magpies in Canada had no significant differences on CBC before or after WNV infections of humans. Canadian magpies had positive trends both before and after WNV infections on both CBC and BBS, but with negative trends during WNV infections. WNV invasion varied temporally across the continent, and Black-billed Magpies consistently showed significant and often dramatic declines soon after WNV invasion of a region. The southern Prairie region was severely hit, with Prairie states such as Kansas and Nebraska showing significant declines on CBC after WNV invasion, shifting from positive trends on CBC and BBS before invasion to negative trends during and after WNV invasion. WNV has potentially triggered or accelerated a retraction of Black-billed Magpie range in this region. The northern part of the Prairie region was less affected. Most southern and central Rocky Mountain, Intermountain, and Pacific region Black-billed Magpie populations showed significant negative effects from WNV infections. States in these regions with higher densities of Black-billed Magpies such as Colorado, Nevada, and Idaho showed significant dramatic declines during WNV invasion, but positive trends after WNV infections declined, a sign of recovering populations. California populations significantly declined with WNV invasion and have not recovered. Populations in northern and higher-elevation regions had little or no impact from WNV and populations were often stable or increasing.

79th Annual Saskatchewan Christmas Bird Count - 2021

79th Annual Saskatchewan Christmas Bird Count - 2021

Twenty-five year population trends in Northern Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus) in eastern North America

Due to the low detectability of Northern Saw-whet Owls (Aegolius acadicus; hereafter, NSWO) throughout their annual cycle, standardized monitoring during migration allows for population assessments over time. We assessed age-class population trends in NSWO throughout eastern North America using banding data from 7 sites over a 25 year period. Using a mixed linear model, we did not detect any significant trends over time for the total owl count, adult owl count, and juvenile owl count from 1992 to 2017. During the period when all 7 sites were active from 2001 to 2017, trend estimates remained nonsignificant despite showing negative slopes. We confirmed this nonsignificant, negative trend through a similar mixed linear model of NSWO data from Christmas Bird Counts. Our results suggest that NSWO populations across eastern North America have been relatively stable since 1992 throughout their migration and winter ranges and demonstrate the value of standardized banding data for monitoring the regional population status of NSWO.

Half‐Century Winter Duck Abundance and Temperature Trends in the Mississippi and Atlantic Flyways

ABSTRACTIncreasing concerns exist about possible decreased wintering duck abundance and hunting opportunities in the southern regions of the Atlantic and Mississippi flyways of North America. Researchers suggest these decreased abundances of ducks may be related to winter warming and related climatic phenomena. Accordingly, we tested predictions that duck abundance was increasing more at northern than southern latitudes, and that trends were related to average winter temperatures (Dec–Jan). We tested predictions using National Audubon Society Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data collected during December 1969 through January 2019 from 31 states in the United States and 6 Canadian provinces that comprise the Atlantic and Mississippi flyways for 16 species of dabbling and diving ducks (Anatinae). We found support for the prediction that CBC trends in duck abundance vary with latitude, and mean winter temperature explained nearly half the variation in CBC trends for 12 of 16 species. For some species, trends were negative in warmer regions and positive in colder regions. For others, trends were stable or slightly positive in warmer regions but more positive in colder regions. These results provide empirical evidence supporting climate‐influenced winter range changes by important game duck species and suggest challenges and opportunities for waterfowl population, habitat, and hunting management in North America and the northern hemisphere. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.

WINTERING LAND BIRDS IN RUSSIAN OLIVE IN SOUTHERN IDAHO

Point counts of wintering land birds using Russian Olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) stands were conducted in 2000 and 2005 on the Snake River Plain, Idaho. The 14 most common species of the 28 recorded were found in both years, and most common species were recorded with similar frequencies between years. Thirteen bird species were observed foraging on Russian Olive fruits. Increases in recent decades in both area occupied by Russian Olive and in counts of Yellow-rumped Warblers (Setophaga coronata) and American Robins (Turdus migratorius) on Christmas Bird Counts suggest that there may be a relationship between Russian Olive expansion and abundance of these species.

Sandpipers go with the flow: Correlations between estuarine conditions and shorebird abundance at an important stopover on the Pacific Flyway.

Estuaries of major rivers provide important stopover habitat for migratory birds throughout the world. These estuaries experience large amounts of freshwater inputs from spring runoff. Understanding how freshwater inputs affect food supply for migrating birds, and how birds respond to these changes will be essential for effective conservation of critical estuarine habitats. We estimated trends over time in counts of Western Sandpiper (Calidris mauri) and Pacific Dunlin (Calidris alpina pacifica) during northward migration on the Fraser River estuary, British Columbia, Canada, where shorebirds feed extensively on intertidal biofilm and invertebrates. We also examined whether counts were correlated with a suite of environmental variables related to local conditions (precipitation, temperature, wind speed and direction, solar radiation, tidal amplitude, and discharge rates from the Fraser River) during a total of 540 surveys from 1991 to 2019. Counts of Western Sandpiper declined ~54% (−2.0% per annum) over the entire study period, and 23% from 2009 to 2019 (−0.9% per annum). Counts of Pacific Dunlin did not show a statistically significant change over the study period. Counts of shorebirds were lower when discharge from the Fraser River was high, which we propose results from a complex interaction between the abrupt changes in salinity and the estuarine food web related to the quantity or quality of intertidal biofilm. Counts were also higher when tidal amplitude was lower (neap tides), potentially related to longer exposure times of the mudflats than during spring tides. Effects of wind are likely related to birds delaying departure from the stopover site during unfavorable wind conditions. The negative trend in migrating Western Sandpipers is consistent with declines in nonbreeding areas as observed in Christmas Bird Counts. Understanding causes of population change in migratory shorebirds highlights the need for research on mechanistic pathways in which freshwater inputs affect food resources at estuarine stopovers.

Sensitivity of multiple vital rates for Ruffed Grouse in the Upper Great Lakes Region

AbstractEffective management of wildlife requires a full understanding of population dynamics and knowledge of potential drivers that influence population growth. The Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus) is a popular upland game bird widely distributed across the northern United States and Canada that has experienced population declines within portions of its range in response to forest maturation and habitat loss. Although the species has been extensively studied, few efforts have been made to synthesize demographic data into a sensitivity analysis to guide management actions. We reviewed the literature and compiled Ruffed Grouse vital rates from 14 field studies conducted across four decades (1982−2018) within the Upper Great Lakes region of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, USA. We parameterized a deterministic matrix model to evaluate population dynamics and conducted sensitivity analyses to identify vital rates projected to have the greatest influence on the finite rate of population change (λ). Our modeling effort projected a stable but highly variable annual rate of population change (λ = 1.01; 95% CI = 0.88–1.14) for Ruffed Grouse in the Upper Great Lakes region. Stochastic rates of population change derived from spring drumming surveys (λ = 1.01; 95% CI = 0.61–1.45) and Christmas Bird Count surveys (λ = 0.99; 95% CI = 0.62–1.76) of the corresponding regional population provided validation of stable trends over the same time period as our demographic model. Prospective elasticities and variance-scaled sensitivities suggested λ would be greatly influenced by components of reproductive performance: nesting success, chick survival, and post-fledging juvenile survival. Retrospective analysis indicated that much of the overall variability in λ and annual productivity was also attributed to annual variation in nesting success. Management of this species has often focused on fall and overwinter survival, but population projection models provided little evidence that survival was the predominant factor affecting population growth of Ruffed Grouse in this region. A suite of confounding factors and demographic processes that drive population trends can differ significantly across a species’ range. In the Upper Great Lakes region, management efforts aimed at maximizing reproductive success would likely have the greatest potential influence on Ruffed Grouse population growth. Other types of systematic, regional survey data can also be useful for validating population trends derived from demographic modeling studies.

Does urbanization influence population trends of cavity-nesting birds and their relationship with European starlings?

European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in North America often achieve high densities in urban regions and compete with other cavity-nesting species for nest sites, including the rapidly declining red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus). However, at a continental scale, European starling populations are unrelated to trends in red-headed woodpeckers. To assess whether urbanization influences population trends of cavity-nesting bird species and the relationship between European starlings and other cavity-nesting birds, we compared population patterns within the highly urbanized region of Cook County, Illinois, USA (which encompasses the city of Chicago) with data from surrounding rural counties. We used data from the Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) and the Christmas Bird Count (CBC) spanning 1970–2017, and i) quantified population trends of 19 cavity-nesting species, and ii) examined the patterns of relationships of each of these species with European starlings. Models fit to population trends over time with a variable for urban/rural location included were selected over models without urban/rural location for 14/17 species in the BBS and 14/15 species in the CBC. Starlings showed population declines in both urban and rural BBS and in urban CBC, while they increased in the rural CBC. Red-headed woodpecker populations declined across every survey set and location. Contrary to predictions, the counts of some species in surveys were significantly positively correlated with European starling population trends, while none were significantly negatively correlated. Our findings suggest that urban and rural locations add information to population trends of cavity-nesting species, and that European starlings have little negative impact on cavity-nesting birds in either rural or urban locations, suggesting that habitat loss and other factors are likely greater impacts on red-headed woodpeckers and other members of the cavity-nesting guild.

What are the competitive effects of invasive species? Forty years of the Eurasian collared-dove in North America

Eurasian collared-doves (Streptopelia decaocto; hereafter ‘collared-doves’) have spread throughout North America since they first colonized Florida in the early 1980s. Here I test for adverse effects of this introduced species on four confamilial potential competitor dove and pigeon species using data from the breeding season (North American Breeding Bird Survey; BBS) and the winter (Audubon Christmas Bird Count; CBC). Within sites of both sets of surveys, correlations between populations of collared-doves and all four potential competitor species have generally been either nonsignificant or positive, indicating a lack of adverse competitive effects due to collared-doves. Similarly, there were no significant differences in population trends of any of the four species in sites where collared-doves were present compared to those where they were not, and there have been no significant declines in population trends of the four species driven by differences in collared-dove abundance in areas where the latter were present. Overall, analyses revealed no negative effects of collared-doves on populations of these potential competitors. Evidence thus far supports a ‘passenger’ rather than a ‘driver’ role for collared-doves in North America, although future monitoring of potential competitor species is warranted, especially if collared-dove populations continue to increase.

78th Annual Saskatchewan Christmas Bird Count - 2019

The results of the 78th annual Saskatchewan Christmas Bird Count are in and, for the third time in the past four years, Gardiner Dam won the crown for most species observed at 45.

Identifying areas of wetland and wind turbine overlap in the south-central Great Plains of North America

The North American Great Plains contains > 80,000 wetlands (playas) that are habitat resources for birds. This region has also undergone recent expansion of wind energy development. Areas of overlap between playas and wind energy structures are potential wildlife hazards. We identified areas where conservation values of playas may be compromised by proximity to wind turbines. We mapped where playas co-occur with wind-energy structures in a 902,765 km2 area encompassing portions of six U.S. states. At a smaller focal level (59 ~458 km2 Christmas Bird Count [CBC] circles), we developed a habitat quality index based on playa area, density, and inundation frequency, and spatially associated values with locations of wind turbines; we then examined CBC data for three focal species from 1984-2015. Over 38% of playas were within 8 km of at least one structure, and 1.3% were within 100 m; ~90% of turbines/structures were within 8 km of a playa (2.7% within 100 m). Six CBC circles had high-quality habitat overlapping with high density of wind turbines. Another seven were high quality with few structures, representing valuable areas for future conservation efforts. However, lack of consistent time-series data constrained our ability to detect effects of wind-energy infrastructure installation on birds. Mapping high-quality habitat areas coincident with wind turbines is a way of identifying overlapping areas of wildlife habitat and sources of mortality without relying on population surveys that may be problematic or lacking altogether. Establishment of innovative protocols will be critical for detecting effects of wind-energy installation, a growing economic sector.

Declines of Black-Billed Magpie (Pica hudsonia) and Black-Capped Chickadee (Poecile atricapillus) in the North-Central United States Following the Invasion of West Nile Virus

West Nile virus (WNV) is an introduced pathogen, transmitted by mosquitos, that spread across North America following its arrival there in 1999. Birds host the virus, but consequences of the disease to bird species have been variable. A small number of avian species are especially susceptible to WNV, experience high mortality rates when infected, and have shown regional declines apparently because of the disease. Other species have seemingly been unaffected. Transmission of WNV is associated with climate, with higher incidence of transmission in dry areas with warm winters. The north-central United States is an area that exhibits clines in temperature and precipitation, and in this area changes in species abundance due to WNV have not been closely examined. We used Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data to investigate changes in winter abundance of selected species before and after the arrival of WNV in the Great Plains. After arrival of WNV, average estimated abundances of Black-billed Magpie (Pica hudsonia) were significantly lower than projected abundances across much of the Great Plains. Black-capped Chickadee (Poecile atricapillus) abundances reached their lowest counts in portions of the Great Plains immediately after the arrival of WNV and experienced overall negative annual declines from 1988 to 2017. Two other species that were examined did not experience changes in abundance across the study area. Abundances of Black-billed Magpies and Black-capped Chickadees have declined over the past 30 years in the Great Plains, and WNV has likely played a major role in recent declines of magpies throughout the study area.

Differential winter and breeding range shifts: Implications for avian migration distances

AbstractAimFor many migratory avian species, winter and breeding habitats occur at geographically distinct locations. Disparate magnitudes and direction of shifts in wintering and breeding locations could lead to altered migration distances. We investigated how shifts in the centre of abundance (COA) of winter and breeding ranges have changed for 77 species of short‐distance migratory birds. We addressed whether species tracked their historical average temperature and precipitation conditions at their winter and breeding COA, using data from 1990 to 2015.LocationNorth America.MethodsWe calculated the COA for winter and breeding ranges from the National Audubon Society's Christmas Bird Count and the North American Breeding Bird Survey. We regressed the annual change in distance (km) between the two annual COAs of each species as a proxy for change in migration distance. We constructed a series of generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) to evaluate changes in average temperature and precipitation at the wintering and breeding COAs.ResultsWinter shifts in COA were predominantly northward. For most species, average temperature and precipitation that species experienced had not changed. Breeding shifts in COA varied in direction. For breeding season COAs, average temperature warmed, but average precipitation had not changed. Thirty‐one species significantly decreased their migration distances, mainly driven by northward shifts in the winter range. Ten species increased their migration distances.Main conclusionsWinter and breeding range shifts in COA have not occurred at the same magnitude and direction and have therefore impacted migration distance. Our results suggest that wintering and breeding range shifts occur independently and under different climate pressures.

The diverse motivations of citizen scientists: Does conservation emphasis grow as volunteer participation progresses?

Citizen science has proven to be a valuable tool for biodiversity conservation. However, to maximize the conservation benefits of citizen science programs, researchers and practitioners would gain from a better understanding of project volunteers and what drives them to participate. We examined the diverse motivations of volunteers (n = 3041) participating in Audubon's Christmas Bird Count, one of the world's oldest ecological monitoring citizen (or community) science projects. Principal axis factor analysis along a 16-item scale revealed six distinct intrinsic and extrinsic motivational constructs: science and conservation, outdoor recreation and discovery, commitment and tradition, social interaction, classic birding, and personal accomplishment. Most participants reported multiple motivations, but 40% indicated contribution to science and conservation was their primary reason for initially engaging with the project. As project participation continued, science and conservation-related motives became even more important (with 55% listing as primary continuing motivation). Regression analyses showed motivational orientations varied by socio-demographic attributes and levels/type of project participation. For example, social interaction and tradition were more important to aspiring project leaders than casual observers. Results highlight insights into deepening project engagement and recruiting and retaining citizen scientists. Adapted and applied across different contexts, our instrument and motivational constructs could help to facilitate volunteer management and enhance citizen science's capacity to advance biodiversity conservation goals.