Antichrist Research Articles

The power of the Roman emperors in the understanding of ancient Christians

The power of the Roman emperors in the understanding of ancient Christians

세 재판을 중심으로 살펴본 2세기 로마의 기독교 박해

It is said that the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire was moderately proceeded from 112 CE to 250 CE. This paper aims to determine if the view is appropriate by investigating three incidents representative of the Christian persecution during the second century. The following conclusions have been drawn. Trajan's rule on the Christians was observed well during the first half of the second century. Even when Peregrinus was denounced, there was not any hint of persecution not only in his church but also in the other churches around it. The persecution of Romans was grown stronger in the middle of the second century. Several persons were killed on trials of Ptolemy and Justin Martyr. In addition, the judges passed death sentences on the people if they were found as Christians, though they were not denounced. Trajan's rule of law was greatly shaken during the second half of the second century. Not only did the people mistreat Christians without trial, but some Roman officials sought after believers and killed those who were discovered.

Abolitionist Decrees in Ethiopia: The Evolution of Anti-Slavery Legal Strategies from Menilek to Haile Selassie, 1889–1942

AbstractSlavery and the slave trade were fundamental institutions in Ethiopian history. Their abolition was a protracted process that involved developing, debating, passing, and applying multiple anti-slavery and anti-slave trade edicts and decrees under successive rulers. While slavery existed in various societies that were later integrated in the Abyssinian empire since the second half of the nineteenth century and took different forms based on different legal traditions, this article focuses specifically on the Christian kingdom and its successor empire. It analyzes changes and continuities in legal approaches to slavery and its suppression through consecutive Ethiopian governments starting with a discussion of slavery's regulation in the ancient Christian law code, the Fetha nagast (“The Law of the Kings”). The article then considers how successive Christian emperors developed anti-slavery policies in response to both local and global dynamics.

From God’s Image and Homo Sapiens to Homo Dei: Struggling with People with Intellectual Disabilities

This paper aims to examine the position of people with intellectual disabilities in two areas of study: the theological discourse of the image of God and the scientific study on the evolutionary theory of human origin, exclusively in social Darwinism and Homo sapiens. In Christian interpretations of God’s image, this paper succinctly presents and revisits two parts: ancient Christian (Augustine and Irenaeus) interpretations of God’s image and several different directions (substantial, relational, functional, and ethical approaches), providing the understanding of the image of God in the modern era. In evolutionary theory, this paper focuses on two parts: the idea of social Darwinism and Homo sapiens. In addition, this paper revisits both ideas in constructing an inclusive paradigm of God’s image. The main argument of this paper is that the image of God liberates people with intellectual disabilities from the confines of the exclusive ideas of God’s image and Homo sapiens to a concept of Homo Dei. In conclusion, this paper proposes the idea of Homo Dei to portray an abstract concept of God’s image vis-à-vis the evolutionary theory.

Formația clasicistă a unui autor patristic: Evagrie Ponticul

This study traces the scholarly context in which one of the great pa­tristic figures of Christian antiquity was formed: Evagrius Ponticus. Bio­gra­phical data on this author are extremely scarce and, therefore, in re­con­structing the picture of Evagrius’ intellectual formation, information from a wide variety of sources is used. In this way, the study succeeds in placing Evagrius in the general context of classical Greek paideia, showing how his many connections with pagan teachers of rhetoric and philosophy, as well as with the great theologians of the time, succeeded in imprinting on Evagrius’ thought the characteristic stamp of a classical education impregnated with the Christian ethos. It was with this education that Evagrius left, in the last part of his life, for the Egyptian desert, where he used all his intellectual endowment to create a system that has become a classic in Eastern monastic theology.

LEGGERE I TESTI CRISTIANI OGGI: RAGIONI, METODI E FINALITÀ

Reading Christian texts today: reasons, methods and purposes. In light of the challenging situation of classical languages and litera ture and Christian studies in today’s social and cultural context, the author’s lectio aims to answer two questions (why do people read Christian texts? how to read them?) through a tripartite path: a) Christian texts, related to Latin and Greek classics, in Western culture; b) today’s school and ancient Christian literature; c) studies of ancient Christian literature in the university research: Bari’s and Fog gia’s contribution. The survey, which naturally refers in the first place to the Italian reality, presents valid considerations for the overall condition of the Christian studies today.

Русская Православная Церковь в мультикультурном государстве: пример Австралийского Союза

The article gives a brief description of the spiritual situation in the Australian Union. The first OrthodoX liturgies were served by the ship's priests for the sailors who made round-the-world voyages. Stationary churches arose in the first third of the 20th century, when a significant number of refugees from Russia moved to Australia. The flourishing of Orthodoxy on Australian land is associated with the establishment of communist power and the beginning of the persecution of Christians in China. Many Russians who settled there after the revolution of 1917 were forced to once again look for a safe place to live. Currently, there are OrthodoX churches in all major cities of Australia. OrthodoX communities are active in spiritual and educational activities and include not only the descendants of Russian immigrants, but also representatives of other nationalities.

Taking Part in Transnational Martyrdom: Construction of Interdenominational and Interreligious Relations in Lithuanian Christian Persecution Discourse

The paper presents an analysis of the discursive construction of Christianity and interdenominational and interreligious relations in the Christian persecution discourse of Lithuanian Catholic anti-genderist groups. The analysis is based on a case study of the discourse developed by Tomas Viluckas in his news portal, Laikmetis (laikmetis.lt), which was operationalised by the Christian Professional Union. The analysis shows that not only does religion have an influence on gender politics, but current debates on gender politics in broader society also shape religion and interreligious relations. Public debates on the ratification of the Istanbul Convention in Lithuania fuelled the perceived relevance of the idea of Christian persecution. This discourse highlighted the multidenominational nature of Christianity and challenged the dominant vision of the national Catholic Church as the sole defender of what is imagined as the traditional Lithuanian family, even if the hierarchy of religious communities in Lithuania features the Roman Catholic Church at the top.

Plutarch’s Parallel Lives and the Greek Christian Fathers of the 2nd Century, with special attention to Clement of Alexandria

It is well known the Plutarch’s influence on the Christian thought of the imperial era, especially in authors such as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius of Caesarea, the three Capadocian Fathers, John Chrysosthomos, Theodoretus, Cyrillus of Alexandria, or Synesius of Cyrene, who not only cite (with the exception of Clement) him, but even, without explicit citing, are directly inspired by some Plutarch’s theological and ethical treatises. In this sense, the use of the Moralia by Greek Christian Apologists and other Fathers of the Church has received sufficient attention from modern bibliography, especially in the last decades of the 20th Century and so far in the 21st Century. Less researched has been, however, the imprint left by the Parallel Lives on the Greek Christian authors of the first five centuries of our Age. My article will focus on this aspect of Plutarch’s reception, although restricted to the 2nd century AD. The first Section will provide an overview (based on modern literature about this topic and on the reading of Christian texts) of the importance of references in Ancient Christian Literature to the characters of Plutarch’s Lives or to specific passages in them. In the first and second Sections I will focus on the possible references to this Plutarch’s work in the 2nd Century apologists, Tatian, Athenagoras and Theophilus (first Section), and in Clement of Alexandria (second Section).

Women, Sex, and Privative Violence in the Council of Elvira Canons

Abstract This article analyzes forms of ecclesiastical punishments found in the fourth-century Council of Elvira canons. Previous work on the council and canons has rightly argued that the regional bishops were concerned with policing the boundaries of their communities, especially when it comes to marriage, women, and sexual behavior. Yet rather than see the punishments and preoccupation with women as representing a natural result of heterosexual male desire or sexual anxiety, a re-evaluation of the canons reveals that church leaders used excommunication as a punishment to exercise social control. In effect, the efforts to deprive community members of communion and baptism function as a form of privative violence. The article analyzes how the canons use the most severe forms of privative violence, near-total and total excommunication, for situations that concerned the sexual behavior of women. By situating the Council of Elvira canons in their sociocultural context in Roman Hispania, as well as among other examples of early Christian texts focused on women’s supposedly deviant bodies, this article contributes to efforts to expand our understanding of the intersection of gender and violence. More importantly, it addresses how these acts of privative violence, particularly against women, shaped the contours of ancient Christian communities.

The ingroup love and outgroup hate of Christian Nationalism: experimental evidence about the implementation of the rule of law

Abstract A long line of research has established that Americans who subscribe to Christian nationalism have a preference for those inside their group and animosity toward those outside their group. These beliefs may impede the equal application of the rule of law, a link that has been suggested but not formally tested. Utilizing experimental data from a survey conducted in fall 2021, we assess the equal application of the rule of law for in and outgroup members conditional on Christian nationalism and belief in Christian persecution. We suggest that ingroup love may move distinctly from outgroup hate. Our results suggest that Christian nationalists have a preference for the ingroup, but do not automatically denigrate outgroups. However, belief in Christian persecution drives animosity toward outgroups, while not elevating the ingroup. Christian nationalist outgroup hatred must be triggered by threat, which has been the project of movement and party elites.

The Coptic Act of Peter in Late Antiquity: Virginity, Disability, Intertextuality

Abstract: In this essay, I argue that the Coptic Act of Peter (Papyrus Berolinensis 8502.4) is a late ancient Christian reformulation of an early Jewish temple tradition preserved in the book of 3 Maccabees , according to which God preserves the sanctity of his temple by means of divine paralysis. I argue further that the implications of this intertextual relationship ought to influence how we interpret the Act of Peter —its narrative, themes, and theology—as well as how and where we might situate this apocryphal account in history. Instead of placing the Greek original in the second or third centuries, I locate it closer to the fourth or fifth, alongside a contemporaneous surge of orthodox exhortations and treatises on virginity—most likely in the context of the varieties of "household asceticism" that were prevalent in late ancient Syria and Asia Minor.

Mirrors of the Divine: Late Ancient Christianity and the Vision of God by Emily R. Cain (review)

Mirrors of the Divine: Late Ancient Christianity and the Vision of God by Emily R. Cain (review)

Luke 9:57–62: Ὁδός to Marcion’s God?

Abstract The first few centuries of the Common Era saw great theological fluidity in emerging Christian doctrine. A figure looming large in many early controversies is Marcion of Pontus. Not considered truly gnostic by modern scholars, Marcion fueled the ire of early Church Fathers—Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, and others—by spreading his apparently biblically-based, ditheistic theology of a superior Unknown Good God and an inferior Just Creator God. Additionally, Marcion’s gospel, generally considered a version of canonical Luke, witnesses the three Jesus sayings in Luke 9:57–62 (cf. Tertullian, Adversus Marcionem 4,23,9–11; Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 3,4,25). This article examines these sayings—in light of both ancient and modern commentary—as representing a collective theological way or ὁδός to ideate Marcion’s Unknown Good God. Today Marcion’s voice is faint, but in ancient Christianity it was exceedingly strong. This article attempts to find a hint of its former strength.

La letteratura cristiana nella produzione letteraria del tardo antico

Abstract This essay aims to illustrate the main features of ancient Christian litera-ture, focusing in particular on multilingualism, multiculturalism, popularity and functionality. In the second part, the essay presents two examples of texts that may be of particular interest to legal scholars: the Acts of legal trials against Christians and the texts on marriage.

The Subscriptions to Mark's Gospel and History of Reception

AbstractThis article surveys the subscriptions to the Gospel of Mark in 157 Greek manuscripts, noting their gradual development from being identical to the title in the earliest phase to becoming more and more elaborate and significant for the history of interpretation. Early on, as reflected in the title, the Second Gospel was associated with Mark, known to be Peter's disciple and interpreter. In the fourth or fifth century, an editor added the information that it was written (or spoken) by Mark in Latin in Rome as reflected in the Peshitta and later Byzantine manuscripts. At some point between the seventh and ninth centuries, an unknown editor added dates for each of the four Gospels from a source which has been attributed to Hippolytus’ Chronicle, and in the process made a cascading error which resulted in too early dates for Mark, Luke and John. In the archetype of Family 13, these traditions were combined which suggests that the archetype of Family 13 is no earlier than the eighth century. A main factor behind this gradual growth of the subscriptions is authentication and authorisation – in the case of the Second Gospel, the association with Mark and Peter legitimates its claim of apostolicity and orthodoxy. Moreover, the situating of each Gospel in time and space through the subscriptions not only satisfies human curiosity but contributes to the construction of an ancient Christian ‘landscape of memory’, reflecting the collective memory of the early Christians, thus shaping and enhancing their identity.

The Woman between Us: Sarah Nakimu Nalwanga and the Founding of Uganda’s Anglican Tradition

Abstract There has always been a debate about the location and role of women during the persecution of Christians under Mwanga II’s first reign as Kabaka of Buganda. Kabaka is the Luganda equivalent of the English word king. The debate is partly fueled by a total absence of women from the pictures of Ugandans historically referred to as the Uganda Martyrs. This paper uses archival research to tell the story of an African woman who, in her adult life, married two devout Anglicans, in whose lives she was actively involved, laying a foundation for Uganda’s Anglican tradition. Evidence shows the first Anglican baptism, teacher and burial in Uganda are traced to her first marriage, which ended in early 1884 with the death of her husband from smallpox. Nakimu Nalwanga Sarah would have been the first martyr if not for the timely discovery that she was Mwanga’s relative. Still, as a punishment, she was ordered to witness the cruel burning of the first martyrs on January 31, 1885. She married again in a marriage that produced Uganda’s first catechist, deacon and priest. Her second husband was part of a team that completed the translation of the first Luganda Bible in 1895.

Elephants, Christians, and Pagans in the History of Sexuality

Abstract: In this article, I argue that Foucault's archives at the Bibliothèque nationale de France require that we re-evaluate the development of his tournant antique . Between 1976 and 1984, Foucault does not orchestrate a turn to ancient Greek and Roman ethics in a departure from his analysis of modern sexuality in the 1976 History of Sexuality , volume 1, as volumes 2 and 3 as published suggest. Instead, it is through his redrafting of volume 2 that he moves from early modern to late ancient Christians, to Greco-Roman philosophers, to ancient Greek philosophers. Tracing Foucault's use of the "moral of the elephant" both before and after his January 1981 Collège de France course provides a way to better understand how Foucault shifts and constructs his History of Sexuality series over his last decade.

Moment of Reckoning: Imagined Death and its Consequences in Late Ancient Christianity by Ellen Muehlberger (review)

Moment of Reckoning: Imagined Death and its Consequences in Late Ancient Christianity by Ellen Muehlberger (review)

An overlooked human rights crisis: The accelerating persecution of Christians across the globe

Human rights violations targeting Christians have accelerated dramatically in the last decade. Social work is ethically committed to challenging religious discrimination and promoting human rights, yet the profession’s literature has featured little content on this growing human rights crisis. In keeping with calls from the United Nations to address this issue, data on the increasing prevalence and intensity of human rights violations aimed at Christians are reviewed. After articulating a theoretical framework to understand the discrimination, strategies are discussed that social workers might implement to promote more inclusive, socially just societies.