Choice Of Stimuli Research Articles

Idiosynchrony: From shared responses to individual differences during naturalistic neuroimaging

Two ongoing movements in human cognitive neuroscience have researchers shifting focus from group-level inferences to characterizing single subjects, and complementing tightly controlled tasks with rich, dynamic paradigms such as movies and stories. Yet relatively little work combines these two, perhaps because traditional analysis approaches for naturalistic imaging data are geared toward detecting shared responses rather than between-subject variability. Here, we review recent work using naturalistic stimuli to study individual differences, and advance a framework for detecting structure in idiosyncratic patterns of brain activity, or “idiosynchrony”. Specifically, we outline the emerging technique of inter-subject representational similarity analysis (IS-RSA), including its theoretical motivation and an empirical demonstration of how it recovers brain-behavior relationships during movie watching using data from the Human Connectome Project. We also consider how stimulus choice may affect the individual signal and discuss areas for future research. We argue that naturalistic neuroimaging paradigms have the potential to reveal meaningful individual differences above and beyond those observed during traditional tasks or at rest.

Midsession reversal learning: Pigeons learn what stimulus to avoid.

The midsession reversal task involves a simple simultaneous discrimination in which, each session, choice of 1 stimulus (S1) is correct for the first 40 trials of each session, and choice of the other stimulus (S2) is correct for the remaining 40 trials. After considerable training with this task, pigeons typically continue to choose S2 too early (making anticipatory errors) and continue choosing S1 for following the reversal (making perseverative errors). Errors can be reduced, however, by decreasing the probability of reinforcement for correct S2 choices or by increasing the response requirement for S2 choices. Increasing the number of S2 stimuli (over trials, 1 S2 stimulus on each trial), however, does not reduce errors. Instead, it results in an increase in anticipatory errors but no change in perseverative errors. In the present experiment, we increased the number of S1 stimuli (over trials, 1 S1 stimulus on each trial) and found an increase in the number of perseverative errors but no change in anticipatory errors. The results suggest that the pigeons acquire this task by learning which stimuli to avoid, rather than which stimuli to choose, although it is also possible that these effects result from attention drawn to the variable stimuli when they are incorrect. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

A Cautionary Note on Evidence-Accumulation Models of Response Inhibition in the Stop-Signal Paradigm

The stop-signal paradigm is a popular procedure to investigate response inhibition—the ability to stop ongoing responses. It consists of a choice response time (RT) task that is occasionally interrupted by a stop stimulus signaling participants to withhold their response. Performance in the stop-signal paradigm is often formalized as race between a set of go runners triggered by the choice stimulus and a stop runner triggered by the stop signal. We investigated whether evidence-accumulation processes, which have been widely used in choice RT analysis, can serve as the runners in the stop-signal race model and support the estimation of psychologically meaningful parameters. We examined two types of the evidence-accumulation architectures: the racing Wald model (Logan et al. 2014) and a novel proposal based on the lognormal race (Heathcote and Love 2012). Using a series of simulation studies and fits to empirical data, we found that these models are not measurement models in the sense that the data-generating parameters cannot be recovered in realistic experimental designs.

Bidirectional conditioning: Revisiting Asratyan's 'alternating' training technique.

The study of bidirectional conditioning began more than a century ago, yet it has failed to take strong root in psychology and neuroscience. We revisit this topic by exploiting E. A. Asratyan's alternating procedure of stimulus presentation, in which both forward (e.g., A→B) and backward (e.g., B→A) training trials are concurrently given, in order to analyze their potential interaction. Specifically, using a two-alternative, forced-choice task, we trained humans and pigeons to learn associations between stimuli depending on whether they were presented as sample stimuli or choice stimuli. Trials were selected from an associative network in which forward and backward associations between sample and choice stimuli were synergistic (bidirectional network) or from an associative network in which these associations were not synergistic (unidirectional network). Humans were faster to learn associations from the bidirectional network than from the unidirectional network; additionally, they performed poorly on unidirectional trials that allowed for the expression of (incorrect) bidirectional associations. Unlike humans, pigeons showed no evidence of bidirectional associations. The reasons for this species difference as well as future directions for research deploying Asratyan's two-way training technique are discussed.

In Response.

We thank Hrishi and colleagues1 for their comments on our recently published study.2 They give us the opportunity to clarify some points related to the use of quantitative pupillometry in critically ill patients. Two pupillary reflexes can be measured using portable infrared pupillometry: pupillary light reflex (PLR) in response to light stimulus and pupil reflex dilation (PRD) in response to noxious stimulus. By providing information on the brainstem integrity through the second and third cranial nerves, there is a growing interest in using quantitative PLR to estimate prognosis after cardiac arrest and traumatic brain injury. Contrary to the widely held opinion, PLR amplitude is relatively resistant to opioids, propofol, volatile agents, and neuromuscular blocking agents.3 We did not use PLR to assess nociception in our study. On the other way, PRD is an evoked reflex mediated through the ophthalmic nerve to detect painful reactions in nonverbal patients. It is largely admitted that opioids depress PRD in a dose-related fashion. Because γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAa) receptors might be involved in generating PRD,3 GABAa agonists such as propofol and midazolam could interfere with PRD measurements. Given that critically ill patients usually receive both opioids and sedatives, monitoring analgesia using PRD implies necessarily considering the level of sedation. In our study, all patients were kept sedated at Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale (RASS) −5 to −4, as shown in Table 2. The choice of noxious stimulus is critical to appropriately assess nociception in nonverbal patients. Laryngoscopy, tracheal intubation, and surgical incision are stimuli of very different uncontrolled noxious intensities. Tetanic stimulation is a more predictable source of painful stimulus than these procedures. Nursing, as used in the referenced poster presentation,4 is a multifaceted procedure that cannot be standardized to assess nociception. Nursing has been never used to validate any pain instrument. The pupillary pain index (PPI) is an elegant approach to estimate nociception while avoiding unnecessary pain and poor tolerance with the application of predefined intensity of electric stimulation. The maximal 13% dilation threshold from baseline was chosen to prevent systemic reactions such as tachycardia and arterial hypertension during tetanic stimulus. Accordingly, we found no changes in these systemic parameters or in Behavioral Pain Scale (BPS) scores during tetanic stimulation. Assessing nociception in brain-injured patients implies the integrity of PRD reflex pathway. Otherwise, PRD measurements can be used as an indicator of peripheral nerve block efficacy or to detect hemispheric brain lesion in a sedated patient. In the present study, there was no evidence of focal neurological lesion according to the computed tomography (CT) scan and PLR measurements. In the rare case of asymmetric PRD response, the highest PPI was taken for the analysis to detect patients with true nociception during endotracheal suctioning. Marc Vinclair, MDClotilde Schilte, MDGilles Francony, MDJean-Francois Payen, MD, PhDDepartment of Anesthesia and Critical CareGrenoble Alpes University HospitalGrenoble, France[email protected]

Влияние информационных технологий на когнитивное развитие детей: обзор современных исследований

Although it is widely accepted that children from the age of two can actively use information technologies including touch screens, the specific ways in which children perceive the content have not been fully identified. The impact of information technology on the cognitive function in children is highly dependent on the type of information, the child’s age, and the social context. The article discusses the features of perception of a video stream by children and the influence of regular video viewing on the development of three-dimensional perception, and motor and executive functions. In children under the age of two, regular video viewing has a negative impact on the development of speech and higher mental functions. It was determined that underdeveloped rules of depth perception block the transfer of experience from a two-dimensional environment to the three-dimensional reality. Regular video viewing leads to a constant activity in the systems associated with the launch of the orienting reflex, and, at the same time, it inhibits the development of executive attention functions, namely the ability to concentrate and the choice of priority stimuli. A comparative analysis of learning by means of illustrative activity and by watching videos made it possible to establish that the first approach provides for a much more dynamic development of a new skill. It was found that the use of computer games has a positive effect on hand-eye coordination and on planning complex behaviour strategies. Yet, regular involvement in computer games provokes hyperstimulation of sensory systems and a decrease in concentration. To conclude, not enough scientific data has been accumulated on the impact of information technologies on child development. As the analysis shows, this is largely due to a lack of systematic research covering different age groups, various types of information technologies, and user scenarios.

Comparison patterns: An experimental study of transposition in children

This study evaluated the functional role of behavioral patterns in relational behavior in humans. The participants were five children, 9–11 years-old. A modified transposition task (size) was used, requiring active comparison patterns in order to match two relational stimulus compounds with two sample stimulus compounds. Comparison patterns were analyzed in terms of the variety of sequences and exceeding movements, the choice of relevant stimuli, and their correspondence with the size relationship between stimulus instances. Results suggest that variation in sequences and movements as well as choice for relevant stimuli influenced the establishment of relational behavior. The neglect of active comparison patterns in accounting for relational behavior is discussed.

Does simulation-based training in medical education need additional stressors? An experimental study

The increased curricular integration of simulation-based training (SBT) in medical education is accompanied by researchers’ calls to examine the effectiveness of SBT. We address conflicting results regarding effects of an added stressor on learning outcomes. In an experimental setting, one group of medical students (N = 20) performed cardiopulmonary resuscitation on a patient simulator. For a second group (N = 21) the scenario differed in that they encountered a defect defibrillator. We found participants of both groups to show increased biological stress-levels, independent of group allocation. Paradoxically, participants who encountered the equipment failure subjectively reported less stress. We discuss the implications of the comparable high stress levels in both groups with regards to future studies. We further discuss the result regarding subjective stress levels within the framework of attribution theory. Practitioner summary: The results of our experimental study underline the need for evidence-based choices of additional stressors for the design of simulation scenarios. We describe the choice of stimuli and setting in detail to maximise practical value for the construction of simulation-based medical trainings.

O Ensino de Física e Matemática sob a Ótica da Neuroeducação

Sob a ótica dos conceitos da neuroeducação e baseado nas Abordagens Metodológicas Peer Instruction e Scale-up, apresenta-se uma proposta de projeto de ensino de física e matemática que utiliza-se da experimentação tecnológica como base para ensinar aos alunos conceitos de física e matemática, levando em consideração que o aluno é o sujeito ativo em sala e cinco níveis de interação a serem estudados: aluno-aluno, aluno-professor, aluno-ambiente, aluno-tecnologia, aluno-saber científico. A inserção tecnológica no processo de aprendizagem promove inúmeras possibilidades de inovação educacional, porém, torna-se mandatório a correta escolha do estímulo tecnológico dentro de um contexto educacional que direcione ao ensino de uma matéria específica, de forma a conduzir a um aprendizado específico.

Midsession reversal learning by pigeons: Effect on accuracy of increasing the number of stimuli associated with one of the alternatives.

The midsession reversal task involves a simultaneous discrimination in which choice of one stimulus (S1) is correct for the first 40 trials and choice of the other stimulus (S2) is correct for the last 40 trials of each 80-trial session. When pigeons are trained on the midsession reversal task, they appear to use the passage of time from the start of the session as a cue to reverse. As the reversal approaches, they begin to make anticipatory errors, choosing S2 early, and following the reversal they make perseverative errors, continuing to choose S1. Recent research suggests that anticipatory errors can be reduced (while not increasing perseverative errors) by reducing the probability of reinforcement for correct S2 choices from 100% to 20%. A similar effect can be found by increasing the response requirement for choice of S2 from one peck to ten pecks. In the present experiments, we asked if a similar effect could be attained by increasing the number of stimuli that, over trials, could serve as S2. Instead, in both experiments, we found that increasing the number of S2 stimuli actually increased the number of anticipatory errors. Several interpretations of this result are provided, including the possibility that attention to the variable S2 stimuli may have interfered with attention to the S1 stimulus.

Ready, set, explore! Event-related potentials reveal the time-course of exploratory decisions

The decision trade-off between exploiting the known and exploring the unknown has been studied using a variety of approaches and techniques. Surprisingly, electroencephalography (EEG) has been underused in this area of study, even though its high temporal resolution has the potential to reveal the time-course of exploratory decisions. We addressed this issue by recording EEG data while participants tried to win as many points as possible in a two-choice gambling task called a two-armed bandit. After using a computational model to classify responses as either exploitations or explorations, we examined event-related potentials locked to two events preceding decisions to exploit/explore: the arrival of feedback, and the subsequent appearance of the next trial's choice stimuli. In particular, we examined the feedback-locked P300 component, thought to index a phasic release of norepinephrine (a neural interrupt signal), and the reward positivity, thought to index a phasic release of dopamine (a neural prediction error signal). We observed an exploration-dependent enhancement of the P300 only, suggesting a critical role of norepinephrine (but not dopamine) in triggering decisions to explore. Similarly, we examined the N200/P300 components evoked by the appearance of the choice stimuli. In this case, exploration was characterized by an enhancement of the N200, but not P300, a result we attribute to increased response conflict. These results demonstrate the usefulness of combining computational and EEG methodologies, and suggest that exploratory decisions are preceded by two characterizing events: a feedback-locked neural interrupt signal (enhanced P300), and a choice-locked increase in response conflict (enhanced N200).

Emotion regulation choice: a broad examination of external factors

ABSTRACTEmotion regulation choices are known to be profoundly consequential across affective, cognitive, and social domains. Prior studies have identified two important external factors of emotion regulation choice: stimulus intensity and reappraisal affordances. However, whether there are other external factors of emotion regulation choice and how these factors contribute to emotion regulation choice when considered simultaneously is not yet clear. The current studies addressed these gaps by examining the relations between emotion regulation choice (distraction vs. reappraisal) and self-reported stimulus intensity, reappraisal affordances, and several other factors including discrete emotions and distraction affordances. Across three studies using different databases of standardised images to enhance generalizability, our results showed that in the context of our experiments, reappraisal affordances were strongly associated with emotion regulation choice (greater reappraisal affordances predicted higher use of reappraisal). Further, stimulus intensity was independently associated with emotion regulation choice in each study. Our results also demonstrated that the discrete emotion of disgust (but not other discrete emotions) is a previously unidentified external factor of emotion regulation choice. We discuss the implications of the current findings.

EFFECTS OF PERCENT REINFORCEMENT ON PIGEON'S ACCURACY IN MIDSESSION REVERSAL TASKS [University of Kentucky

This experiment tests the effects of a reducing the value of one stimulus compared to another. We hypothesize that in a midsession reversal task, accuracy would improve by devaluing choice of S2 relative to S1. A midsession reversal task requires a simultaneous discrimination between 2 stimuli (S1, S2), during which, halfway through the session the reinforcing stimulus is reversed. A current theory, win-stay/lose-shift, is a strategy for optimal choices in this task. In this strategy, an animal would continue to repeat choice of a correct stimulus, but once the stimulus becomes incorrect, the animal should switch to the other stimulus. In this experiment, ten unsexed White Carneau pigeons were used as subjects. The experiment took place in an operant test chamber. Inside, three horizontally aligned circular response keys are attached to a response panel. The keys are lit by mounted projectors showing red and green hues. Reinforcement consisted of 1.5 seconds of access to mixed-grain from a feeder. In the experimental group, all correct responses to S1 were reinforced but only a random 20% of the correct responses to S2 were reinforced. Our findings suggest that paradoxically, the reduction in the probability of reinforcement for correct S2 responses from 100% to 20% had a net positive effect on correct responses. There was a significant reduction in errors prior to the feedback from the reversal as well as no increase in errors following the feedback from the reversal. Analysis of the trials on either side of the reversal made it clear that there was a net benefit in percentage correct due to the decrease in the probability of reinforcement associated with correct responses to S2. This study suggests the negative impacts of too much reinforcement on subjects performance in a task.

Higher plasma levels of F2-isoprostanes are associated with slower psychomotor speed in healthy older adults

Oxidative stress has been identified as a process which is detrimental to brain health, and associated with age-related cognitive declines. Few studies to-date have examined the relationship between in vivo oxidative stress biomarkers and cognitive performance within healthy elderly populations. The current study investigated the relationship between reaction time and oxidative stress, as measured by blood plasma concentrations of F2-isoprostanes using a sample of 251 healthy, non-demented, elderly volunteers (Male; 111: Female 140) aged 60–75 years from the Australian Research Council Longevity Intervention (ARCLI) study cohort. A Jensen Box was used in conjunction with the Hick paradigm in order to differentiate simple from choice reaction time (two, four and eight-choice conditions) as well as movement (MT) and decision times (DT). MT, but not DT, was found to be significantly slower for participants in the high F2-isoprostane group compared to the low F2-isoprostane group, across all stimulus choices. F2-isoprostanes, age and Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) full scale intelligence quotient (IQ) were found to be significant predictors of average MT in the sample as a whole. These findings provide preliminary evidence to suggest that higher levels of oxidative stress may be associated with impaired psychomotor speed in the healthy elderly population.

Effects of NMDA antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801) are modulated by the number of distractor stimuli in the rodent odor span task of working memory.

The rodent odor span task (OST) uses an incrementing non-matching to sample procedure in which a series of odors is presented and selection of the session-novel odor is reinforced. An OST is frequently used to test the effects of neurobiological variables on memory capacity as the number of odors to remember increases during the course of the session. In this regard, one important finding has been that NMDA receptor antagonists selectively impair OST performance at doses that spare accuracy on control tasks. However, in many versions of the odor span task the number of stimuli to remember is confounded with the number of distractor odors presented to the rat on each trial. The present study compared the effects of the NMDA antagonist dizocilpine when the number of choices was held constant at two (one novel odor-S+ and one previously presented distractor odor-S-) and when the number of choice stimuli was permitted to increase up to 10 (one S+ and 9 S-). Dizocilpine impaired OST accuracy at doses that had no effect on a reference memory control task in both 2-choice and 10-choice conditions; however, the dose-response function was shifted to the left in the 10-choice tests. The impairments produced by dizocilpine were exacerbated as the memory load increased in both 2- and 10-choice conditions. These findings support the hypothesis that NMDA antagonism reduces the number of stimuli that rats can remember accurately, but the interaction between the effective DZP dose and the number of distractors shows that drug effects on OST performances may involve attentional factors in addition to memory capacity. The findings also demonstrate that variations in number of OST distractors can be used to alter sensitivity of the task.

Aging and hearing loss effects on neural speech processing

The effects of age-related hearing loss are pervasive, resulting in declines in social, emotional, and cognitive function. As the world becomes a quieter place, the decrease in sensory input from the auditory periphery may trigger homeostatic mechanisms to preserve a stable rate of neural firing at higher levels of the auditory system from brainstem to cortex. For example, decreased inhibitory neurotransmission increases neural excitability, preserving the sensation of loudness for moderate to moderately loud conversational speech levels. However, this change in the balance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission may disrupt the brain’s ability to follow the rapid acoustic changes that are characteristic of running speech. Age-related disruptions in auditory processing of synthesized syllables and naturally-produced words and sentences have been demonstrated using electrophysiology (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG). This presentation will review a series of EEG and MEG studies demonstrating effects of aging and/or hearing loss that vary depending on factors associated with type of hearing loss, stimulus choice, and primary neural source (midbrain versus cortex). Clinical implications for hearing loss management will be discussed. [Work supported by NIH-NIDCD, R21 DC015843-01.]

Transformation of mechanism of sales and services promotion in digital environment

Digitalization of economy will not solve the problem of gaining consumers’ trust. Consumers are getting more independent in their choice; they learn to escape watching advertisements. That is why reputation of an organization, together with price, is becoming a powerful stimulus of consumer choice. In order to overcome informational overload of digital environment and create reputational assets, it is necessary to change the strategies of marketing communications. The content of messages should address basic values of consumers, therefore the emphasis should be shifted to promoting social ideas. High importance of an idea means high involvement of consumers and that allows overcoming informational overload of digital environment. Correlation of expenses and profits from realizing a social idea and also the value of an idea for the society and an individuum determine four types of promoting strategies. Interconnection of an organization business and the problem being solved enables not only forming reputation but also performs commercialization of a social idea in the form of sales of a material product. Promoting a social idea requires network structure of building the process of communication. The network model of communication takes into account multiplicity of subjects participating in the communication and also ‘self-sufficiency’ which is intrinsic to the idea as benefit suggested for exchanging.

Envelope frequency following responses are stronger for high-pass than low-pass filtered vowels

Background: To assess hearing in response to speech, the envelope frequency following response (FFR) can be observed at the fundamental frequency of a vowel stimulus and its harmonics. FFRs are complex non-linear phenomena, which require better understanding for allowing robust inferences on the assessment of hearing and hearing aid fitting.Objectives: To evaluate the effect of stimulus bandwidth on FFR detection rates using filtered vowel stimuli with equal sound levels.Design: FFRs were collected whilst presenting repeated vowels (in consonant-vowel-consonant format) filtered into different bandwidths. Eighty stimuli per word were presented at 70 dB SPL LAeq through insert earphones with an inter-stimulus interval of 1 s. Responses were detected using frequency-domain Hotelling's T2 (HT2) tests for individual multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) and for combinations of F0 multiples.Study sample: A total of 11 native English-speaking subjects with normal hearing thresholds.Results: Average detection rates are highest (69%) with stimuli high-pass filtered >1000 Hz, and significantly lower for low-pass filtered stimuli (40%).Conclusions: High-pass filtered vowels therefore appear to elicit stronger FFRs than low-pass filtered vowels at the same dB SPL LAeq. For testing hearing using band-limited speech, filtering effects (due to hearing loss, hearing aid setting or stimulus choice) on responses must be considered.

A novel multichoice touchscreen paradigm for assessing cognitive flexibility in mice.

Cognitive flexibility refers to various processes which enable behaviors to be modified on the basis of a change in the contingencies between stimuli or responses and their associated outcomes. Reversal learning is a form of cognitive flexibility which measures the ability to adjust responding based on a switch in the stimulus–outcome contingencies of, typically two, perceptually distinct stimuli. Reversal tasks have provided valuable insight into the neural basis of cognitive flexibility, implicating brain regions including the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (lOFC) and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC). However, with two-stimulus reversal, it is difficult to determine whether response errors are due excessive perseveration, deficient learning, or other problems with updating. To address this limitation, we developed a mouse three-choice touchscreen-based visual reversal task, in which the contingencies of two stimuli were switched on reversal but a third, simultaneously presented, stimulus was never reinforced. We found that, in male C57BL/6J mice, responding at the previously rewarded stimulus predominated over the newly and never-reinforced stimuli during early reversal. Next, we showed that acute pharmacological inhibition of lOFC, but not dmPFC, impaired early reversal performance, relative to noninactivated controls. Interestingly, however, lOFC inactivation deficits were characterized by increased choice of the never-reinforced stimulus and a decrease in (perseverative-like) responding at the previously rewarded stimulus. These effects are inconsistent with the historical notion of lOFC mediating response inhibition and closer to recent views of the lOFC's role in response/outcome tracking. Overall, these findings provide initial support the utility of this novel paradigm for studying cognitive flexibility and its underlying neural substrates.

Reliability of triggering inhibitory process is a better predictor of impulsivity than SSRT

The ability to control behaviour is thought to rely at least partly on adequately suppressing impulsive responses to external stimuli. However, the evidence for a relationship between response inhibition ability and impulse control is weak and inconsistent. This study investigates the relationship between response inhibition and both self-report and behavioural measures of impulsivity as well as engagement in risky behaviours in a large community sample (N = 174) of healthy adolescents and young adults (15–35 years). Using a stop-signal paradigm with a number parity go task, we implemented a novel hierarchical Bayesian model of response inhibition that estimates stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) as a distribution and also accounts for failures to react to the stop-signal (i.e., “trigger failure”), and failure to react to the choice stimulus (i.e., “go failure” or omission errors). In line with previous studies, the model reduced estimates of SSRT by approximately 100 ms compared with traditional non-parametric SSRT estimation techniques. We found significant relationships between behavioural and self-report measures of impulsivity and traditionally estimated SSRT, that did not hold for the model-based SSRT estimates. Instead, behavioural impulsivity measures were correlated with rate of trigger failure. The relationship between trigger failure and impulsivity suggests that the former may index a higher order inhibition process, whereas SSRT may index a more automatic inhibition process. We suggest that the existence of distinct response inhibition processes that may be associated with different levels of cognitive control.