Chloride Pentahydrate Research Articles

Synthesis of N,N'-Arylidene Bisamides Using Stannic Chloride Pentahydrate as Catalyst

Synthesis of N,N'-Arylidene Bisamides Using Stannic Chloride Pentahydrate as Catalyst

Fabrication of high-performance supercapacitors based on hollow SnO2 microspheres

Hollow SnO2 microspheres are prepared from resorcinol–formaldehyde gel and different tin compound precursors, including stannous sulfate (SnSO4), stannous chloride dihydrate (SnCl2·2H2O), and stannic chloride pentahydrate (SnCl4·5H2O) via chemically induced self-assembly in hydrothermal environment. Morphological and structural characterizations of as-prepared hollow SnO2 microspheres are carried out using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and nitrogen adsorption–desorption method. Their electrochemical properties as the supercapacitor electrode materials for application are also investigated using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) measurement in 1 M H2SO4 electrolyte. There are redox peaks in CV curves and a large number of Faradic plateaus in GCD curves. At different scan rates, all the obtained samples have excellent electrochemical properties. The hollow SnO2 microspheres obtained from SnSO4 and SnCl2·2H2O as precursors show relatively lower specific capacitances of 395 and 347 F g−1, respectively. However, the specific capacitance of SnO2 from SnCl4·5H2O is up to 663 F g−1. The high specific surface area and hollow structure of SnO2 microspheres are due to facilitating the rapid transport of electrolyte ions and improving the electrochemical performance. It is expected that hollow SnO2 microspheres are the promising redox supercapacitor materials.

Electrochemical Deposition of Gold-Tin Alloy from Propyleneglycol Electrolyte

Stable and simple in composition nonaqueous propyleneglycol (PG) electrolyte containing tetracyanoaurate(III) and tin(IV) chloride pentahydrate in mole ratio 1:14 has been developed for the electrochemical deposition of gold–tin alloy with the elemental, phase composition and microstructure acceptable for soldering in electronics. This electrolyte provides deposition of Au–Sn coatings at a rate of 2.4 mg/cm2·h (1.8 µm/h accounting the alloy composition) and to obtain alloys which consist of Au5Sn and AuSn crystalline intermetallics containing 14–67 at.% of tin (optimal 39 at.%) in total that corresponds to the composition of eutectic applicable as a solder. Coatings have a very uniform tightly packed and fine-grained microstructure and are composed of spherical grains 0.1–1.0 µm in diameter and average size of 0.2 µm. The addition of water or full change of PG on water fastens the rate of coating deposition and stipulates the formation of coatings with mush less tin content, more coarse-grained microstructure and predominance of gold or gold-enriched intermetallics in their phase composition. The effect of the electrolyte composition and the regime of its work on the elemental and phase composition of coatings, their microstructure and the rate of deposition have been determined. The role of PG in the process of mutual gold and tin electro-reduction and intermetallic compounds crystallization has been found out.

Synthesis and Properties of P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>-SnO<sub>2</sub>-ZnO Penetrated into Silica Aerogel Matrix by Sol-Gel Technique

This work demonstrated the synthesis of SiO2-P2O5-SnO2-ZnO quaternary porous aerogel by sol-gel followed supercritical carbon dioxide drying, starting from tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) as precursor for SiO2and triethyl phosphate, tin (iv) chloride pentahydrate and zinc nitrate hexahydrate as precursor for P2O5-SnO2-ZnO. It has been recorded that prepared P2O5-SnO2-ZnO sol was added to silica sol, then formed the quaternary aerogel by base catalyst. The microstructure, morphology and properties of the quaternary aerogel were studied by TG/DTA, FTIR, solid-state29Si NMR, BET, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) measurement and BJH nitrogen gas adsorption. The silica aerogels tetrahedral subunit structure and the influence of the loaded oxide have been observed. The results indicated that the quaternary aerogel exhibited average pore diameter of 14.15 nm, cumulative pore volume of 2.31 ml/g, the specific surface area as high as 796.29 m2/g and bulk density of 0.275g/cm3. There were four types of Si (O1/2)4tetrahedral unit structure in the quaternary aerogel. From this study, different chemical bond of P2O5-SnO2-ZnO penetrated into the silica network structure.

SnO<sub>2</sub> Nanoparticle Synthesized by Ultrasonic-Assisted Process

SnO2 nanoparticles were synthesized by ultrasonic-assisted precipitation process using stannic chloride pentahydrate (SnCl4·5H2O) as a precursor. The stannic chloride aqueous solution was precipitated by ammonia under sonication. The as-synthesized precipitates were dried at 80 oC and then calcined at 400 oC for 2 h. The physical properties of nanoparticles with/without sonication were characterized by thermogravimetic and differential thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, and transmission electron microscope. The results reveal that ultrasonic radiation has significant influence on phase transformation mechanism from Sn (OH)4 to SnO2, grain size and uniformity of SnO2 nanoparticles.

One-step hydrothermal synthesis of high-performance visible-light-driven SnS2/SnO2 nanoheterojunction photocatalyst for the reduction of aqueous Cr(VI)

A simple and cost-effective one-step hydrothermal method, which was based on the reactions of tin(IV) chloride pentahydrate and different dosages of thioacetamide in water at 190°C for 6h, was employed for the synthesis of composition-tunable SnS2/SnO2 nanoheterojunctions (e.g., SnS2/SnO2-A, SnS2/SnO2-B and SnS2/SnO2-C). The photocatalytic properties of the as-synthesized SnS2/SnO2 nanoheterojunctions were tested by the reduction of aqueous Cr(VI) under visible-light (λ>420nm) irradiation. Furthermore, the photocatalytic efficiency of SnS2/SnO2-B was compared with those of PM-SnS2/SnO2 (which denotes the physically mixed SnS2/SnO2 nanocomposite with the same composition as SnS2/SnO2-B) and SnS2 nanoflakes at different dosages of photocatalysts. It was observed that (i) the photocatalytic activities of the as-synthesized SnS2/SnO2 nanoheterojunctions depended on their compositions, and SnS2/SnO2-B with 70mol% SnS2 displayed the highest photocatalytic activity; (ii) SnS2/SnO2-B invariably exhibited higher photocatalytic efficiencies than PM-SnS2/SnO2 and SnS2 nanoflakes at different dosages of photocatalysts; (iii) the washing with 1mol/L HNO3 can effectively regenerate the used photocatalyst; (iv) SnS2/SnO2-B exhibited good photocatalytic stability in reuses, with regeneration by 1mol/L HNO3-washing after each cycle of photocatalytic use; and (v) Cr(VI) was reduced to Cr(III). The possible formation mechanism of SnS2/SnO2 nanoheterojunctions and the reasons accounting for the photocatalytic results were also discussed.

Thermally induced structural changes and optical properties of tin dioxide nanoparticles synthesized by a conventional precipitation method

Tin dioxide (SnO2) nanoparticles were synthesized by a conventional precipitation method using the reaction between tin chloride pentahydrate and ammonia solutions. The obtained powders were calcined at varied temperatures from 300 to 1050°C, and then characterized by using thermogravimetric analysis, differential thermal analysis and Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy. The average crystallite size, determined by x-ray diffraction, was found to be in the range of 3.45–23.5nm. The analysis exhibited a tetragonal phase. The activation energy of crystal growth was calculated and found to be 12.12kJ/mol. The microstructure of nanoparticles was examined by high resolution transmission electron microscopy. Optical properties were investigated by a UV–vis absorption spectrophotometer. The calculated optical band gap lies between 4.75–4.25eV as a result of increasing the calcination temperatures and crystallite size.

Effect of precursor sol pH on microstructural, optical and photocatalytic properties of vacuum annealed zinc tin oxide thin films on glass

Dip coated vacuum annealed zinc tin oxide thin films on soda lime silica glass have been deposited from the precursor sols containing zinc acetate dihydrate and tin (IV) chloride pentahydrate (Zn:Sn = 67:33, atomic ratio in percentage) in 2-methoxy ethanol by varying sol pH (0.85–5.5). Crystallinity, morphology, optical and photocatalytic properties of the films strongly depend on sol pH. Measurement of grazing incidence X-ray diffraction confirms the presence of hexagonal nano ZnO in the films derived from the sols of pH < 5.5. Film crystallinity deteriorates on increasing sol pH and the film deposited from the sol of pH 5.5 shows XRD amorphous but the selected area diffraction pattern and HRTEM image evidence the presence of nano Zn2SnO4 (size, 5–6 nm). Direct band gap energy of films increases on increasing sol pH. To visualize the film surface microstructure, FESEM study has been done and a rod-like surface feature is revealed in the film deposited from the sol of pH 2.85. A dependence of precursor sol pH on the photocatalytic activity of films towards degradation of Rhodamine 6G dye under UV (254 nm) irradiation is found and the highest decomposition rate constant, ‘k’ value is obtained from the film prepared from the sol of pH 5.5. The presence of zinc deficient nano Zn2SnO4 in the film may consider for generating the highest ‘k’ value. We also measure gelling time, viscosity of sols as well as UV and FTIR studies on the films and propose chemical reactions.

In situ growth of Pt nanoparticles on electrospun SnO2 fibers for anode electrocatalyst application

A facile method to synthesize Pt nanoparticles on the electrospun SnO2 fiber matrix is presented. Precursors contained tin chloride pentahydrate, hexachloroplatinic acid, polyacrylonitrile, and N,N-dimethylformamide were electrospun and subsequently calcinations was carried out at 500°C for 4h. It is shown that Pt nanoparticles were grown on SnO2 fiber matrix without any formation of PtO. Pt nanoparticles size was in the range of 6–32nm, by adjusting the concentration of polyacrylonitrile. The electrochemically active surface area of Pt/SnO2 fibers was found to be very competitive compared to the commercially available electrocatalyst. This work demonstrates that Pt/SnO2 fibers can be generated by a facile electrospinning process.

Effects of replacing a dietary antibacterial agent (zinc bacitracin) with copper salts in Cherry Valley Pekin meat ducks

1. A study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of high dietary copper concentrations obtained from tribasic copper chloride (TBCC, 58% copper) and copper sulphate pentahydrate (CuSO4, 25% copper) in replacing antibiotic growth promoters (AGP) in duck diets. 2. A total of 960 one-day-old Cherry Valley meat-strain ducks were divided into 3 treatment groups, with 8 replicates per treatment, in a 6-week feeding trial. The ducks were fed a basal diet supplemented with AGP (40 mg zinc bacitracin/kg and 40 mg garlicin/kg of diet) or 150 mg of Cu/kg of diet, given as either CuSO4 or TBCC. 3. The body weight, average daily gain, average daily feed intake and mortality of ducks were not affected by the dietary treatments. However, the feed/gain ratio of ducks that were fed TBCC diets was significantly lower than those of ducks that were fed CuSO4 diets and were similar to those in the AGP group. 4. TBCC increased the Cu content in the liver tissue of ducks compared with the content in those that were fed the diet supplemented with AGP. TBCC also increased the Fe and Zn content in breast muscles compared with that in ducks that were fed the diet supplemented with CuSO4. 5. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) were significantly higher in the serum of ducks that received the diet supplemented with TBCC than AGP or CuSO4. TBCC treatment decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) content in serum of ducks compared with groups supplemented with CuSO4. 6. No significant difference was observed in liver or muscle fat content among the different dietary treatment groups. The serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration was lower in ducks fed AGP diets than those fed CuSO4 diets. 7. It was concluded that the replacement of AGP with 150 mg of Cu/kg of feed from TBCC improved the feed efficiency, trace mineral deposition and antioxidant status more than when the source of copper was CuSO4.

Structures and properties of SnO2 nanofibers derived from two different polymer intermediates

Two types of SnO2 nanofibers were prepared by electrospinning and calcination of polyvinyl acetate/stannic chloride pentahydrate and polyvinyl pyrrolidone/stannic chloride pentahydrate precursors, respectively. Due to the different properties of polymer solutions and different decomposition mechanisms during calcination, the as-prepared SnO2 nanofibers showed different morphologies and crystal structures. As a result, they exhibited different performance when used as lithium-ion battery anodes and photocatalysts. In the lithium-ion battery test, the SnO2 nanofibers obtained from polyvinyl acetate/stannic chloride pentahydrate precursor showed a higher reversible specific capacity (871 mAh g−1) and better cycling performance (574 mAh g−1 after 20th cycles) because their cobweb-like structure and polycrystalline nature had better ability to accommodate the volume changes of SnO2. On the other hand, SnO2 nanofibers derived from polyvinyl pyrrolidone/stannic chloride pentahydrate precursor exhibited higher photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue (56 %) even at a low concentration of (10−5 M, 50 ml) because they provided higher surface area for absorbing and degrading methylene blue.

Characterization and Photoresponse Propreties of Sn-doped ZnO Thin Films

Sn-doped ZnO (SZO) thin films were prepared by sol-gel spin-coating method based on zinc acetate dihydrate (CH3COO)2 Zn H2O, Tin (IV) chloride pentahydrate (SnCl45H2O), 2-methoxyethanol (C3H8O2) and diethanolamine ((HOCH2CH2)2NH, DEA.The solution was prepared with various Sn doping content in ZnO assigned at 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% and 10%. All films were spin-coated on borosilicate substrates and annealed temperature at 550°C for 4h in air. The structural properties of the films were characterized by XRD and SEM and the corresponding results indicated the crystalline structure and surface morphology of the films, respectively. UV-VIS transmission spectra was used to determine optical properties of as-prepared. The increasing Sn doping content into ZnO films results to the enhancement in transparency of the films and the observable alternation in their grain size. The photoilluminated current linearly increases with increasing bias voltage indicating the good Ohmic contact of the device. The photoresponse of the device has significant improvement with increasing Sn doping content.

Synthesis of Coral‐Like, Straw‐Tied‐Like, and Flower‐Like Antimony Sulfides by a Facile Wet‐Chemical Method

Antimony sulfide (Sb2S3) was successfully synthesized from antimony chloride (SbCl3) and sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate (Na2S2O3·5H2O) in ethylene glycol (EG) without using any template by a facile wet‐chemical method. X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) show that the products were orthorhombic Sb2S3 nanorods forming the coral‐like, straw‐tied‐like, and flower‐like architectures with the nanorods growing along the [001] direction. The energy gap (Eg) was determined by UV‐visible absorption to be 1.52 eV.

Hydrate formation in the system tetraethylammonium bromide-water

The phase diagram of the binary system tetraethylammonim chloride-water was studied by the differential-thermal analysis method. In addition to two known compounds (tetraethylammonim chloride monohydrate and tetrahydrate) five crystal phases were detected: two solid-phase modifications of tetraethylammonim chloride pentahydrate (mp 33.2 and 10.0°C) and three phases melting at −83.5, −110.0, and −135.0°C.

Electrical property and characterization of nano-SnO2/wollastonite composite materials

Nano-tin oxide was deposited on the surface of wollastonite using the mixed solution including stannic chloride pentahydrate precursor and wollastonite by a hydrolysis precipitation process. The antistatic properties of the wollastonite materials under different calcined conditions and composite materials (nano-SnO2/wollastonite, SW) were measured by rubber sheeter and four-point probe (FPP) sheet resistance measurement. Effects of hydrolysis temperature and time, calcination temperature and time, pH value and nano-SnO2 coating amount on the resistivity of SW powders were studied, and the optimum experimental conditions were obtained. The microstructure and surface properties of wollastonite, precipitate and SW were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS), specific surface area analyzer (BET), thermogravimetry (TG), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier translation infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) respectively. The results showed that the nano-SnO2/wollastonite composite materials under optimum preparation conditions showed better antistatic properties, the resistivity of which was reduced from 1.068×104Ωcm to 2.533×103Ωcm. From TG and XRD analysis, the possible mechanism for coating of SnO2 nanoparticles on the surface of wollastonite was proposed. The infrared spectrum indicated that there were a large number of the hydroxyl groups on the surface of wollastonite. This is beneficial to the heterogeneous nucleation reaction. Through morphology, EDS and XPS analysis, the surface of wollastonite fiber was coated with a layer of 10–15nm thickness of tin oxide grains the distribution of which was uniform.

Wet chemical synthesis and characterization of SnS2 nanoparticles

The SnS2 nanoparticles were synthesized at room temperature by simple wet chemical method. Stannic chloride pentahydrate (SnCl4·5H2O) and thioacetamide (C2H5NS) were used as a source of Sn+4 ions and S−2 ions, respectively. The elemental composition of the as-synthesized SnS2 nanoparticles was determined by energy dispersive analysis of X-ray. The structure and lattice parameters were determined by X-ray diffraction. The crystallite size was determined from XRD pattern using Scherrer’s formula and Hall–Williamson plot. The transmission electron microscopy was employed to characterize the nanoparticles. The selected area electron diffraction pattern established the polycrystalline nature of SnS2 nanoparticles. Surface topography of nanoparticles was studied employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The bandgap determined from the UV–Vis–NIR spectrum of as-synthesized SnS2 nanoparticles showed blue shift in comparison with the bandgap of bulk SnS2. The photoluminescence spectra at five different excitation wavelengths 250, 300, 350, 400 and 450 nm showed two strong emission peaks at wavelengths 550 and 825 nm. The obtained results are discussed in details.

In situ crystalline investigation of sol–gel deposited barium stannate (BaxSnO2+y; x:y ≈ 1:1) nanoparticles in alkaline medium

Fine layers of barium stannate nanoparticles have been synthesized by sol–gel technique with tin chloride pentahydrate (SnCl4·5H2O) and barium sulphate (BaSO4). Physico-chemical properties of barium stannate, BaxSnO2+y; x:y ≈ 1:1 were characterized by X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and UV–Visible spectrophotometry technique. A growth mechanism based on the combination of particle sticking and molecule level heterogeneous growth is proposed. It has been found that the particle size of all the samples was distributed in the range 3.0–6.5 Ǻ while optical absorption spectrum indicates that BaxSnO2+y nanoparticles have a direct band gap of 3.9 eV.

Solid state synthesis of tin-doped ZnO at room temperature: Characterization and its enhanced gas sensing and photocatalytic properties

A room temperature solid-state reaction has been used to prepare crystalline tin-doped ZnO. Zinc nitrate hexahydrate, cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide, stannic chloride pentahydrate and sodium hydroxide with proper ratios were ground together. As-synthesized samples were characterized by inductively coupled plasma analysis (ICP), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRD); The products were of different morphologies, well dispersed and exhibited good crystallinity, it is also found that the growth direction and morphology of ZnO depend on the amount of Sn doped, which is mainly caused by the difference in sizes between Zn and Sn atoms as well as the change of pH value. Moreover, gas sensing and photocatalytic properties of the obtained products were studied. The materials showed a high gas response to ethanol vapor, and the gas response can reach a maximum of R a/ R g = 124. In addition, tin-doped ZnO materials exhibited improved photocatalytic performance toward methyl orange (MO) solution under a current density of 0.03 mg L −1 comparison with undoped ZnO.

Structural, compositional and electrical properties of co-precipitated zinc stannate

Zinc stannate (Zn 2SnO 4) powders were synthesized by chemical co-precipitation method using stannic chloride pentahydrate (SnCl 4·5H 2O) and zinc acetate (Zn(CH 3COO) 3·4H 2O) as precursors in aqueous medium. The influence of sintering temperatures on the structural, compositional, dielectric, electrical and impedance properties has been studied. X-ray diffraction study reveals that samples sintered at 400–1200 °C show combined phases viz. ZnO, SnO 2, Zn 2SnO 4. The observed binding energies of Sn 3d 5/2, Zn 2p 3/2 and O 1s reveal that Sn and Zn are present in oxidized state (Sn–O–Zn). We studied interparticle interactions like grains, grain boundary effects using complex impedance spectroscopy.

Preparation of SnS&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Thin Films by Chemical Bath Deposition

A chemical bath deposition method has been proposed for the preparation of SnS2 thin films onto glass slides from the aqueous solutions of tin (IV) chloride pentahydrate, thioacetamide and citric acid at 35 °C. High quality SnS2 thin films were obtained by adjusting the amounts of citric acid, which was used here as a complexing agent. The as-prepared thin films were characterized by Raman spectra, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), surface profiler and UV-vis absorption spectra. Raman spectra revealed that the as-prepared films were of hexagonal phase SnS2. FESEM images and surface profiler measurements indicated that the SnS2 thin film deposited under the optimum condition was homogeneous and well adhered to the substrate, with a thickness of about 200 nm. Optical absorption measurements disclosed that the SnS2 thin film deposited under the optimum condition had a band gap of about 2.40 eV.