Chloride Deposition Research Articles

Evidence for Deposition of Chloride on Mars From Small‐Volume Surface Water Events Into the Late Hesperian‐Early Amazonian

AbstractWe determine the environmental setting and timing of enigmatic large‐scale chloride deposits on Mars, examining all available high‐resolution imagery globally, building digital elevation models, surveying targeted infrared images intersecting chloride deposits for accessory minerals (e.g., clay, carbonate, and sulfate), and performing crater counting for age‐dating when possible. We find that chloride deposits are commonly draped atop underlying topography, often associated with channels, sometimes perched above deep craters in local topographic lows, and span a wide range of elevations. Where measurable, chloride deposit thicknesses are typically <3 m. The deposits range in elevation over tens of meters, inconsistent with previous hypotheses of playa‐like environments, which are very flat. Chloride deposit elevations within larger basins are typically asymmetric with chloride deposits much higher on the inlet channel side, indicating that (a) surface water runoff was the most likely water source and (b) the basins were likely not filled completely with water in a deep lake setting but rather chlorides formed within a series of shallow ponds. Mass balance allows local sourcing from mobilization of cations and chlorine from dust/soil. Though prior global‐scale studies report chloride deposits superimposed on Noachian terrains, crater‐counting of local, stratigraphically‐associated datable surfaces shows chlorides superimposed on 3.4–2.3 Ga volcanic terrain. This indicates that surface waters forming chloride deposits continued through the Hesperian and into the Amazonian, making them among the latest‐formed, large‐scale deposits of water‐related minerals on Mars. Collectively, data suggest formation from meltwater from episodic ice/snow deposits continuing until 2.0–2.5 Ga.

Corrosion Behaviour of Fe-Based Austenitic and Ni-Based Alloys in Wet Co2 Gas with and Without Chloride Deposits at 650°C

Corrosion Behaviour of Fe-Based Austenitic and Ni-Based Alloys in Wet Co2 Gas with and Without Chloride Deposits at 650°C

Development of a paper-based lateral flow prothrombin assay.

Disorders of haemostasis result in both excessive bleeding and clotting and are a major global cause of morbidity and mortality, particularly in the developing world. A small number of simple tests can be used to screen and monitor for such dysfunctions, one of which is the prothrombin time (PT) test and associated International Normalisation Ratio (INR). PT/INR is routine in hospital laboratories in developed countries, and can also be performed using point-of-care instruments. However, neither of these approaches is appropriate in low-resource settings. Significant interest has grown in paper-based devices to form the basis of simple and low-cost assays that may have the potential for application in such environments. This study describes the development of a simple, low-cost, paper-based lateral flow prothrombin assay. The assay employed wax printing on chromatography paper to define test channels, with deposition of thromboplastin reagent and calcium chloride onto the resulting strips. These were placed in a test housing and measurement of the flow rates of deposited plasma samples were performed in triplicate. The flow dynamics of the assay was optimised according to the type of paper substrate used, the nature and quantity of the thromboplastin reagent, the amount of calcium chloride required, and the volume of sample employed. An optimised assay configuration demonstrated a dynamic range of 6 mm between normal and factor-deficient plasmas. The assay showed good correlation with laboratory-based PT assay (Yumizen G200) in artificial plasmas in the 9.8 to 36 s range (r2 = 0.8112). The assay also demonstrated good dynamic range and correlation in patient plasma samples in comparison with hospital PT, with a range of 9.8 to 45 s (r2 = 0.7209).

ВЗАИМОСВЯЗЬ ПАРАМЕТРОВ ЭЛЕКТРООСАЖДЕНИЯ И МОРФОЛОГИИ ПОВЕРХНОСТИ НИКЕЛЕВЫХ ПОКРЫТИЙ В ПРИСУТСТВИИ ИНГИБИТОРА РОСТА

On the one hand, nickel and nickel coatings are well-studied objects in terms of their wide practical application; on the other hand, the application of various approaches to their production and structuring gives new possibilities for changing their properties. At present, the research activities related to the change in nickel physicochemical properties through nanostructuring are being carried out. Methods and techniques for producing nanostructured materials are very diverse. However, many of them are considered energy-intensive and economically unviable. The work solves the problem of obtaining nickel coatings and changing their properties through electrodeposition from aqueous solutions of electrolytes. The paper studies the effect of additives to a nickel electrolyte on the habit of crystals formed in the coating and, consequently, the nickel coating morphology. The authors used sodium, potassium, and calcium chlorides in the same molar concentration to be additives. During the electrodeposition of coating samples, the substrate nature and the electrolysis regimes changed. The deposition was carried out in the stationary mode of electrodeposition within one or two stages of electrolysis. The authors studied the obtained samples by scanning electron microscopy methods using X-ray diffraction analysis. The study identified that chlorides can significantly change the coating surface morphology. Depending on chloride concentration and deposition regimes, the surface morphology of nickel coatings changes from the three-dimensional cone-shaped structures to the lamellar habit. Chlorides allow forming crystals with pentagonal symmetry as well. The addition of chlorides affects the growth of crystals in certain crystallographic directions (111), which may be the result of their inhibitory effect. The obtained nickel coatings have a regular microrelief.

Correlation between surface concentration of chloride ions and chloride deposition rate in concrete

This paper analyses the correlation function between the results of the time-consuming evaluation of chloride in concrete using the modified chloride penetration test and the significantly faster evaluation of the amount of chloride in the air using the dry plate method. Two in-situ locations in the Czech Republic were selected for long-term placement of samples, each with a highly different microclimate related to traffic intensity and different types of a bridge structure. Concrete samples were placed in-situ for 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 years of exposure. The dry plate method for obtaining the deposition rate of chloride was analysed each month and recalculated to the chlorides captured on the surface of the plate. There was good agreement in the amount of chloride increase in concrete and deposition plate during the winter, the increase of chlorides from de-icing agents, as well as a decrease in the summer period. In the measurements of concrete, the effect of chloride leaching from the upper layers was observed, even though the samples were partially hidden. The correlation found thus far needs to be verified in other locations in situ thus clarifying whether the dry plate method can fully replace the destructive examination of concrete structures.

CMBEAR: Python-Based Recharge Estimator Using the Chloride Mass Balance Method in Australia.

The chloride mass balance (CMB) method is widely used to estimate long-term rates of groundwater recharge. In regions where surface water runoff is negligible, recharge can be estimated using measurements of chloride concentrations of groundwater and precipitation, and an estimate of long-term average rainfall. This paper presents the Chloride Mass Balance Estimator of Australian Recharge (CMBEAR), a Jupyter (Python) Notebook that is set up to rapidly apply the CMB method using gridded maps of chloride deposition rates across the Australian continent. For an Australian context, the chloride deposition rate and rainfall maps have been provided. Thus, CMBEAR requires only a spreadsheet with the groundwater chloride concentration, the latitude and longitude of the sample location, and some simple user inputs. CMBEAR may be easily applied in other regions, providing that a gridded chloride deposition map is available. Recharge estimates from CMBEAR are compared against published applications of the CMB method. CMBEAR is also applied to a large dataset from the Northern Territory and is used to produce a gridded map of recharge for western Victoria. CMBEAR provides a reproducible and straightforward approach to apply the CMB method to estimate groundwater recharge.

Crystallization Behavior of Ammonium Chloride in High-Pressure Heat Exchanger of Hydrotreating Unit

In view of the corrosion failure of a high-pressure heat exchanger in a diesel hydrogenation unit, the formation mechanism of ammonium chloride in a multiphase flow system is investigated in this article. Numerical simulation is carried out by user defined function (UDF) on the process of adding source of mass transfer in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solvers. The distribution characteristics of ammonium chloride are illustrated by the parameters including crystallization temperature of ammonium chloride, volume fraction of ammonium chloride, and mass transfer rates of NH3 and HCl, and the causes of corrosion cracking in the U-shaped bend of the heat exchanger are discussed. The results show that there is a great risk of ammonium chloride deposition in the heat exchanger from 4.5 m away from the outlet of the second pass. The crystallization area in the tube gradually expands from the wall to the center along the flow direction, and the crystallization rate is higher near the tube wall. The field sampling test results show that the corrosion cracking is hydrogen-induced cracking, which is due to the existence of large amount of hydrogen, high impacting force, excessive flow rate, and the risk of ammonium chloride particle erosion at the U-bend. In order to alleviate the corrosion of ammonium chloride deposition, some improvement measures are put forward, such as raising the inlet temperature of the tube side to 215 °C and increasing the water injection by 30%, which play an important role in decreasing the formation of ammonium chloride in the heat exchange system.

Impact of Environmental Pollution in the Sustainability of Architectural Heritage: Case Study from Cartagena of India, Colombia

Limited studies have been carried out in emerging nations on the correlation among the environmental pollution, economic factors, and architectural heritage. For this reason, this research presents an assessment of environmental parameter values on materials deterioration used in architectural heritage in Cartagena de Indias; furthermore, it depicts the effect of heritage degradation on socioeconomic aspects of people whose livelihood depends on trade, tourism, and service activities. Dose-response functions were used for estimating of deterioration of carbon steel, copper, and zinc caused by relative humidity (RH), temperature (T), sulphur dioxide deposition (DSO2), and chloride deposition (DCl−). In addition, socioeconomic impact on architectural heritage was studied using a Socioeconomic Impact Survey (SEIS), with the sample of 174 individuals who work in areas of great architectural value in the city. The results show a corrosion rate (Vcorr) in the range of 80 < Vcorr < 200, 2.8 < Vcorr < 5.6 and 4.2 < Vcorr < 8.4 μm/year for carbon steel, copper, and zinc, respectively, due to the high level of pollutants. The high deterioration jointly with the lack of citizen culture affect the architectural heritage monuments causing a negative impact in several economic aspects. The establishment of public programs is essential for the conservation of the heritage monuments of the city.

Corrosion behaviour of Fe-25Cr alloy in wet CO2 gas at 650 °C: Effects of chloride deposits and Si+Mn alloying addition

A model ferritic Fe-25wt% Cr alloy exposed to an Ar-60CO2-20H2O gas mixture at 650 °C experienced rapid oxide scale growth and simultaneous internal carburization. When a deposit of NaCl-KCl was present on the alloy surface, it developed a more porous oxide scale and more extensive carburization. In the absence of salt, alloy additions of Si+Mn led to improved protection: slow oxide scaling and no carburization. In the presence of salt, this protection was much reduced. These effects are discussed in terms of oxide volatilisation and ferrite chromium concentration depletion by carburization.

Measuring Aerosol Chlorides for Atmospheric Corrosion Studies in Cold Alaskan Climate

Atmospheric corrosion is a complex process, which involves chemical, electrochemical, and physical changes to the metal exposed. Atmospheric corrosion occurs when a metal surface is under a thin layer of moisture, but not completely immersed, and the metal surface corrodes while exposed to environmental factors. Atmospheric corrosion of metal alloys in cold environments is assumed to be negligible and limited corrosion data are available in cold climates. However, studies in the Arctic and Antarctic regions have shown significant corrosion damages when exposed to cold conditions. The rate of atmospheric corrosion on various alloys is affected by environmental parameters that include temperature, rainfall, humidity, chloride-ion deposition rate, and time of wetness (TOW). Two important factors that affect atmospheric corrosion rates are aerosol chlorides and TOW. The main goal of this research is to monitor and measure the aerosols chlorides in the atmosphere, measure TOW and correlate the degradation of carbon steel alloys that are widely used in land, sea, and aerospace transportation, the oil and gas, fisheries, and mining applications. The main objectives achieved are design of Combined Chloride and Corrosion Portable Racks (C3PR) and deployment of C3PR racks in four different Alaskan environments. Chloride deposition rate measured using ASTM standards for three different exposure periods along with TOW, ambient temperature and RH data are correlated to the atmospheric corrosion rate of carbon steel to understand the underlying atmospheric corrosion mechanisms. The results from this research work will give a better understanding on the atmospheric corrosion studies in cold arctic/sub-arctic environment and lead to more externally funded projects.

Study on the process of chloride invasion and deposition in concrete under dry-wet cycles and continuous loading

Concrete for marine construction is not only eroded by seawater but also affected by ocean tides. The corrosion of the concrete structure is severe in the tidal range zone and the splash zone under the frequent dry-wet cycles environment. In order to investigate the process of chloride invasion and deposition in concrete under continuous loading, this paper applied pre-loading to concrete samples and evaluated pore distribution, chloride ions invade, and deposition of chlorine salts in concrete samples under dry-wet cycles with the use of salt weighing method, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and micro-CT. The results showed that the chloride salt quickly invaded into the samples under the influence of dry-wet cycles. With dry-wet cycles, chlorine salt is deposited in the pores of the samples, and the amount of chloride salt deposition increased with time. The pre-applied stress loading condition inhibited the salt deposition process. The results of the XRD analysis showed that chloride ions combined with calcium ions and deposited in the cracks and pores of the concrete after penetrating into concrete.

A Field Study of Atmospheric Corrosion of Carbon Steel after Short Exposure in Pelabuhan Ratu, West Java Province, Indonesia

The investigation of atmospheric corrosion of mild carbon steel as representative of offshore infrastructure has been carried out in the marine tropical of Pelabuhan Ratu, West Java, Indonesia. They are exposed up to 76 days of periods, and their corrosion rates are determined according to ASTM G1-03. The surface morphology, the elemental compositions and compounds were observed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), respectively. The environmental parameters of the test site are monitored during exposure, such as air temperature, relative humidity (RH), airborne salinity and dew temperature. Based on the results, the corrosion rates of steels were 2.79 and 2.8 mpy within the 27 and 76 days exposures, respectively. The presence of chloride deposition on the surface of steel can increase the severity of corrosion. Moreover, the detrimental effect of chloride was observed in rust product, which was covered by an oxygen element. The main phases of rust products present were magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (α-Fe2O3.H2O). Several cracks were observed in the rust layer, which tended to exfoliate and lose adherence and protectiveness from further corrosion attack. HIGHLIGHTS The presence of chloride deposition on the surface of steel can increase the severity of corrosion. The severity of corrosion attack mainly depends on the exposure time and some climatic parameters, such as relative humidity (RH), air temperature and chloride airborne. The uniform distribution of the chloride tends to increase the production of ferrous chloride in high RH condition and the aqueous layer deposited on carbon steel. There are two phases on corroded carbon steel such as hematite (α-Fe2O3.H2O) and Magnetite (Fe3O4) after exposure GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Preliminary Modeling of Chloride Deposition on Spent Nuclear Fuel Canisters in Dry Storage Relevant to Stress Corrosion Cracking

This study presents a method that can be used to gain information relevant to determining the corrosion risk for spent nuclear fuel (SNF) canisters during extended dry storage. Currently, it is known that stainless steel canisters are susceptible to chloride-induced stress corrosion cracking (CISCC). However, the rate of CISCC degradation and the likelihood that it could lead to a through-wall crack is unknown. This study uses well-developed computational fluid dynamics and particle-tracking tools and applies them to SNF storage to determine the rate of deposition on canisters. The deposition rate is determined for a vertical canister system and a horizontal canister system, at various decay heat rates with a uniform particle size distribution, ranging from 0.25 to 25 µm, used as an input. In all cases, most of the dust entering the overpack passed through without depositing. Most of what was retained in the overpack was deposited on overpack surfaces (e.g., inlet and outlet vents); only a small fraction was deposited on the canister itself. These results are provided for generalized canister systems with a generalized input; as such, this paper is intended to demonstrate the technique. This study is a part of an ongoing effort funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Energy Office of Spent Fuel Waste Science and Technology, which is tasked with doing research relevant to developing a sound technical basis for ensuring the safe extended storage and subsequent transport of SNF. This work is being presented to demonstrate a potentially useful technique for SNF canister vendors, utilities, regulators, and stakeholders to utilize and further develop for their own designs and site-specific studies.

Chloride distribution model and corrosion map of structural steels for tropical climate in Thailand

Tropical climate generally causes long-period of high temperature, relative humidity, and frequent monsoon rainfalls. In combination with airborne salinity, tropical countries usually experience severe corrosion of steel structure. Chloride is a major marine aerosol accelerating corrosion. A study on chloride distribution within 0–5 km from the sea was conducted at three coastal regions in Thailand: upper Gulf of Thailand, southern Gulf of Thailand, and Andaman coasts. It is revealed that chloride deposition rates are exponentially decaying functions of distance from the sea. The chloride deposition rate at the coast is ranked from low to high as upper Gulf of Thailand << Andaman < southern Gulf of Thailand. Sea wind also contributes to chloride deposition rate based on run of wind (ROW) parameter. In this work, both correlative functions of chloride deposition rate with either sea wind speed during prevailing sea wind period or annual monthly ROW are compared. Furthermore, corrosion map constructed from chloride raster layer is presented and validated. A web application of Thailand corrosion map from this work is launched for public access to corrosion rate of carbon steel (SS400) and weathering steel (Corten-B). The chloride distribution model based on run of wind parameter can be applied to coastal regions with varying seasonal wind characteristic for example California, Florida, Italy, Malaysia, and South Korea.

Ten years outdoor exposure of steel in an urban and coastal tropical atmosphere

ABSTRACT The mild carbon steel (CS) A-36 and weathering steel A-588 were exposed to the outdoor atmosphere at two different locations in tropical Panama. After a 10-year exposure, the results indicate that the chloride deposition rate and the type of steel play an important role in the corrosion behaviour of tested steels. Both types of steel mainly contain lepidocrocite and goethite as corrosion products at the urban site, while the corrosion products of steels exposed to a moderate marine atmosphere consisted of lepidocrocite, goethite and maghemite. The large fractions of maghemite in the corrosion products of steel A-36 suggest that this phase is interrelated to the higher corrosion rate of CS in the moderate atmospheric environment.

Atmospheric Corrosion in an Oil Refinery Located on a Tropical Island under New Pollutant Situation

Outdoor–indoor atmospheric corrosion of low carbon steel (LCS AISI-1020) was studied in an oil refinery. Three outdoor exposure sites and one indoor exposure site were placed. Corrosivity categories of the atmosphere were defined according to the procedures established on ISO 9223: 2012 and ISO-11844: 2006. There are three ways for classifying corrosivity categories: direct determination by weight loss, estimated classification based on environmental parameters, and estimation using dose response functions. High corrosivity category (C4) was determined by all three procedures for the outdoor exposure site close to the coast of Havana Bay. In the other two outdoor exposure sites (farther from the coast), the corrosivity category of the atmosphere estimated was high (C4), while corrosivity category determined was medium (C3). Sulfur compounds’ deposition rate was higher than chloride deposition in outdoor–indoor exposure conditions, as it is expected for an oil refinery. However, the most influential factor for atmospheric corrosion was chloride deposition; this means that in the composition of sulfur compounds, a significant amount of sulfur oxides is not present (very corrosive agents). It means the emissions of aggressive gases by the oil refinery is almost negligible; it is a new situation respecting pollution inside an oil refinery. Under indoor exposure conditions, corrosivity categories of the atmosphere estimated and determined was high (IC4). The factor most influential on atmospheric corrosion was the $$\mathrm{RH}-\mathrm{T}$$ complex. Morphology of corrosion products was characterized. Lepidocrocite with different morphologies was the main corrosion product present.

Zinc-nickel alloy coatings: electrodeposition kinetics, corrosion, and selective dissolution. A review

A review of the literature is devoted to the patterns of the electrodeposition of zinc-nickel alloys including the kinetics of cathodic reduction of zinc, nickel, and zinc-nickel alloys in ammonium chloride, sulphate, and glycinate deposition electrolytes. We studied the data on the effectiveness of the corrosion resistance of zinc-nickel coatings and summarised the principal patterns of selective dissolution of the Zn-Ni alloys. The role of the addition of glycine to an ammonium chloride deposition electrolyte was determined in the modification of the morphological and anticorrosive properties of the coatings.

Preparation of polyvinylidene fluoride modified membrane by tannin and halloysite nanotubes for dyes and antibiotics removal

Separation of dyes and antibiotics is particularly important in wastewater treatment. In this work, the hydrophilic modified polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes were prepared by deposition of halloysite nanotubes (HNTs), tannic acid (TA) and ferric chloride (FeCl3). The surface morphology of the modified membranes was studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). In addition, the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were used to evaluate the chemical compositions of the membrane. The measurements of water contact angle (CA) and pure water flux (Jw) show that the PVDF membrane has excellent permeability and hydrophilicity. The PVDF modified membrane has good separation performance for dyes, and the rejection ratios of methyl orange, methylene blue and rhodamine B were 98.2%, 94.6% and 96.9%, respectively. In addition, the rejection ratios of modified membrane for tetracyclines and bisphenol A were significantly improved. Most important of all, the TA-Fe(III)/HNTs/PVDF membrane has excellent antifouling performance after cycles tests. These results indicate that the TA-Fe(III)/HNTs/PVDF modified membranes have a great application prospect in dye and antibiotic wastewater treatment.

Magnesium Corrosion Research Special Issue

Welcome to the second special issue of CORROSION devoted to current trends in magnesium corrosion research. This issue follows our original guest co-edited special issue published in May 2017, as well as two prior issues dedicated to magnesium and aluminum-magnesium alloys. The high susceptibility of magnesium and its alloys to corrosion is acknowledged to be the principal barrier to its widespread use as a structural metal. Hence, the subject of corrosion and protection of magnesium and its alloys remains one of the most highly cited fields in corrosion science and continues to stimulate significant interest and debate.It is with great pleasure that we serve as guest co-editors for this issue, which presents invited original articles contributed by research groups from the United States, Canada, Germany, Australia, Malaysia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. We are extremely grateful to the authors for finding the time to compile their manuscripts and to the reviewers for the rigor of their efforts, given the current unprecedented challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, we would like to extend our gratitude to the editorial team of Prof. John Scully, Sammy Miles, and Marlene Walters for their invaluable advice and guidance.For this latest special issue, we have sought to compile a selection of articles that cover a broad range of interests, which reflect the current cutting-edge of magnesium corrosion research. The first papers, by Glover and coauthors, seek to further the understanding of the phenomenon of cathodic activation of a corroding magnesium surface and demonstrate how a novel germanium alloying addition mitigates this effect, thus reducing the corrosion rate.These are followed by a description of the development of a novel experimental method that allows dynamic pH control of an unbuffered test electrolyte, by Curioni, et al., along with preliminary findings on the pH-dependent electrochemical response of pure Mg. Several articles focus on the localized corrosion behavior of technologically important Mg alloys such as ZEK100 (Kousis, et al.) and Magnox Al-80 alloy (Clark, et al.), used in the automotive sector and first generation of U.K. nuclear reactions, respectively, and characterized using a scanning vibrating electrode technique. The same methodology, in combination with scanning electrochemical microscopy, is used by others (Thomas and coauthors) to investigate the time-dependent localized corrosion behavior of welded AM series alloy surfaces.Another two papers focus on Mg corrosion inhibition, one using an empirical approach to investigate the effectiveness of lithium carbonate technology on AZ31 alloy (Kish and coauthors) and the other using density functional theory calculations to optimize the inhibitive properties of bipyridyl-based derivatives (Feiler, et al.). The importance of magnesium alloys as biodegradable materials for potential in vivo applications is addressed in contributions by Höhlinger, et al., and Chen and coauthors. The former describes a multifaceted approach to evaluate the corrosion rate of WE43 alloy in the presence of different types of surface coatings, while the latter quantifies the biocompatibility of a Mg surface immersed in simulated body fluid as a function of corrosion product film composition. Finally, there are also valuable contributions which investigate the corrosion of binary Mg alloys prepared by high energy ball milling of nanocrystalline powders, by Gupta and coauthors, and the influence of carbon dioxide on the atmospheric corrosion of Mg-Al alloys in the presence of sodium chloride deposits, by Esmaily and coauthors.We hope that you find the selection of articles both stimulating and informative.

Mixed-halide perovskites solar cells through PbICl and PbCl2 precursor films by sequential chemical vapor deposition

Mixed halide perovskites with chlorine (Cl) content have received significant interest due to better charge transport properties and longer diffusion length compared to pure iodine-based perovskites. The superior properties of Cl-doped perovskites improve solar cell device performance, although the quantification of Cl composition in the perovskite films remain difficult to achieve. Hence, it is difficult to correlate the Cl-quantity with the improved device performance. In this work, we deposited Cl-doped perovskite films through a facile three- and two-step sequential chemical vapor deposition (CVD) where lead halide films were deposited in the first steps of the process and subsequently converted to perovskites. No Cl substitution by iodine was observed during a sequential deposition of lead chloride and lead iodide films which reacted to form a lead chloride iodide phase (PbICl). The substitution of Cl by iodine ions only occurred during the conversion to perovskite phase. Large perovskite grains (greater than 2 µm) were realized when converting a PbI2 film to perovskite compared to chlorine containing lead halide films, contradicting literature. However, Cl doped perovskite solar cells showed improved device efficiencies as high as 10.87% compared to an un-doped perovskite solar cell (8.76%).