Chitwan National Park Research Articles

Determinants of abundance and habitat association of mammals in Barandabhar Corridor Forest, Chitwan, Nepal

Abstract Barandabhar Corridor Forest (BCF), the biologically functional corridor, is surrounded by the large human settlements that exploit the corridor where large mammals such as tigers, leopards and their prey such as ungulates, primates, and rhinoceros occur. This study aimed to evaluate major determinants that affect the distribution of large mammals in BCF, Chitwan, Nepal that connects the biologically significant Chitwan National Park with the Mahabharat range. The status and distribution of large mammals along the habitat and disturbance gradients were determined by using 29 line transects (mean length = 4.59 ± 0.38 km) that covered a linear distance of 133.13 km. The chital were the most abundant mammals (density per km2 (D) = 8.9095 ± 1.4570 and encounter rate per km (ER) = 1.49) followed by rhesus monkey (D = 38.896 ± 16.013, ER = 0.28), wild boar (D = 14.814 ± 3.57, ER = 0.62), northern red muntjac (D = 9.6566 ± 2.9514, ER = 0.62) and sambar (D = 5.392 ± 2.319, ER = 0.38). Similarly, the sign encounter rate of tiger and leopard was 0.435 and 0.503 respectively. Habitat types, human disturbances, and coverage of invasive and alien plant species (IAPs) played a key role in the distribution of large mammals. The occurrence of mammals was low nearer to the settlements and roads and coverage of IAPs and more nearer to the water resources. However, degradation of foraging grounds such as grasslands by succession and invasion of alien plant species added more threats to the survival of large mammals. Therefore, such a situation can be improved through the scientific management of forests and grasslands.

Tuberculosis seroprevalence and comparison of hematology and biochemistry parameters between seropositive and seronegative captive Asian elephants of Nepal.

We conducted a tuberculosis (TB) serosurveillance program of captive elephants in Nepal and compared hematology and biochemistry parameters between seropositive and seronegative elephants. A total of 153 elephants (male=20, female=133) from four national parks were tested for TB using the ElephantTB STAT-PAK® Assay (ChemBio Diagnostic Systems, Inc., Medford, NY, USA). The mean reported age for 138 elephants was 38.5 years (range 2–71 years). Seroprevalence for TB was 21.56% (33/153). The majority of seropositive elephants were female (n=30) and from Chitwan National Park (n=29). The occurrence of TB seropositive cases in other more remote national parks suggests TB may be widespread among the captive elephant population of Nepal. Hematology and biochemistry analyses were performed on 13 and 22 seropositive elephants, respectively and, nine elephants from a seronegative TB herd for comparison. Hematology parameters (hemoglobin, packed cell volume, platelet, white blood cells, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate) were comparable between the two groups. Total protein, globulin, and lactate dehydrogenase were significantly higher in seronegative elephants, and bilirubin was significantly higher in seropositive elephants whereas blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase/aspartate aminotransferase (GOT/AST), glutamic pyruvic transaminase/alanine aminotransferase (GPT/ALT), gamma glutamyl transferase (GT), and albumin were not significantly different. The range of biochemical parameters that were significantly different between seropositive and seronegative elephants had narrow ranges. Thus, the potential of these parameters as a direct biomarker for TB diagnosis is limited based on the findings in this study. We recommend including blood parameters in future TB surveillance studies.

Assessment of Human-Tiger Conflict and its Community Based Mitigation Efforts in Madi Valley of Chitwan District, Nepal


 
 
 Human fatalities and livestock depredation are the ultimate manifestation of human–tiger conflict (HTC). It is one of the major challenging issues that need to be sorted out where such incidences occur frequently. This study aimed to investigate the status of HTC and mitigation measures adopted by local communities in Madi valley adjacent of Chitwan National Park (CNP). Data were collected through household interviews (n=52, including 25% victim’s households), direct field observation and CNP archive records from 2014 to 2018. This study revealed that average livestock depredation was 15.60 (n=78, mean=5.06, SE±1.66) animals per year and among them goats were highly depredated animals (n=39, mean=7.80, SE±2.33). It also showed that livestock depredation trend increased at the rate of 4.1 animals per year but that of human casualties decreased at the rate of -0.3 persons per year during 2014 to 2018. Predation proof corrals, mesh wire fencing, traditional fencing using white cloths andlivelihood diversifications were the major local mitigation efforts adopted by local people. However, detailed studies on effectiveness of locally adopted mitigation techniques along with further investment to implement them from government line agencies and conservation partners are suggested for strengthening human-tiger co-existence in the study area.
 
 

State making through conservation: The case of post-conflict Nepal

In this article we use the case of post-conflict Nepal to advance political ecological analyses of conservation violence, securitization, and militarization and analyses of the role of environmental governance in state-making. During the civil war of 1996–2006, Maoist insurgents controlled most of rural Nepal, including several national parks. Maoist insurgents' occupation of parks supported their goal of establishing a parallel state. Following the war's cessation, the Nepali government has worked to remake the state in rural areas formerly under Maoist control. We conducted an ethnographic study of Nepal's Chitwan National Park and its buffer zone, employing participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis. Territoriality and territorialization are constitutive concepts of our analysis and we view national parks and buffer zones as internal territorializing practices for extending state power over people and nature. We found that the Nepal Army's role in conservation is expanding, the national parks agency is increasingly militarized, and conservation policy in Nepal's buffer zones has shifted toward securitization. Buffer zone legislation and regulation, we document, grants the Nepal Army sweeping powers of surveillance and law enforcement in hundreds of communities and countless farms and pastures. We found that buffer zone residents increasingly experience the state as an imminent presence in their daily lives. Based on our findings we argue that militarization and securitization practices in conservation are a strategically important to the Nepali government's efforts to reassert state power over rural spaces and to buttress them against future peasant-based insurrections.

Role of Community in Leading Conservation: Effectiveness, Success and Challenges of Community-Based Anti-Poaching Unit in Nepal

Himalayan mountains have rich biodiversity and species endemism. Simultaneously, critical level of socio-economic vulnerability and poverty presents significant potential for Community Based Conservation (CBC) practices aiming to provide both environmental and social benefits. Community based anti-poaching operation is poorly documented that hinders in assessing CBC practices in the field. To assess the effectiveness of Community Based Anti-Poaching Unit (CBAPU) in and around of Beeshazari lake of Chitwan National Park, Nepal, primary data was collected using semi-structured questionnaire, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Unemployment and the consequent poverty were found as the key reason of poaching and other illegal activities. Patrolling, surveillance and information gathering against illegal activities, rescue of wildlife and awareness raising activities were the major activities of CBAPU, which has significantly contributed to wildlife conservation. Inadequate financial resource was found to be the greatest hindrance for anti-poaching operation in an organized and effective way.

Green Vegetation Cover Has Steadily Increased since Establishment of Community Forests in Western Chitwan, Nepal

Community forests have been established worldwide to sustainably manage forest ecosystem services while maintaining the livelihoods of local residents. The Chitwan National Park in Nepal is a world-renowned biodiversity hotspot, where community forests were consolidated in the park’s buffer zone after 1993. These western Chitwan community forests stand as the frontiers of human–environment interactions, nurturing endangered large mammal species while providing significant natural resources for local residents. Nevertheless, no systematic forest cover assessment has been conducted for these forests since their establishment. In this study, we examined the green vegetation dynamics of these community forests for the years 1988–2018 using Landsat surface reflectance products. Combining an automatic water extraction index, spectral mixture analysis and the normalized difference fraction index (NDFI), we developed water masks and quantified the water-adjusted green vegetation fractions and NDFI values in the forests. Results showed that all forests have been continuously greening up since their establishment, and the average green vegetation cover of all forests increased from approximately 30% in 1988 to above 70% in 2018. With possible contributions from the invasion of exotic understory plant species, we credit community forestry programs for some of the green-up signals. Monitoring of forest vegetation dynamics is critical for evaluating the effectiveness of community forestry as well as developing sustainable forest management policies. Our research will provide positive feedbacks to local community forest committees and users.

Governance of protected areas: an institutional analysis of conservation, community livelihood, and tourism outcomes

Protected areas are managed for multiple, often competing, goals including biodiversity conservation, community livelihoods, and tourism. However, there is a lack of clear evidence on which governance approaches are more effective in governing protected areas to achieve these goals. This paper sheds light on the effectiveness of different protected area governance approaches using Ostrom’s Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework. The research was conducted in three protected areas of Nepal: Chitwan National Park, the Annapurna Conservation Area, and the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, which represent state-community, NGO, and community-managed protected areas, respectively. Data were collected through interviews, supplemented by published and unpublished documents, and field observations. Results revealed that the outcomes vary across the protected areas primarily because of their governance approaches and local contexts. Due to rigid monocentric and simple polycentric approaches, the PAs failed to adapt to the changing social-ecological systems. Based on the findings, a multi-layered polycentric adaptive co-management approach has been proposed. The study also developed a multi-goal IAD model to assess PA governance. Additional theoretical, methodological, and managerial implications with respect to protected areas governance are also discussed.

Nesting Ecology of Gharials (Gavialis gangeticus): Implications from In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation Programs in Chitwan National Park, Nepal

We studied nesting and reproductive ecology of critically endangered Gharials (Gavialis gangeticus) in the Narayani and Rapti rivers as well as ex situ breeding facilities in the Chitwan National Park in Nepal from 2001 to 2017. We located a total of 151 Gharial nests over 17 yr in sand banks along the Narayani (n = 94 nests) and Rapti (n = 57 nests) rivers and brought these nests to ex situ breeding facilities where eggs were artificially incubated. The number of nests (mean, 8.9/yr) showed an increasing trend over the years between 2001 and 2017. Nesting occurred within a narrow window of time (mean oviposition date, March 31) with onset of nesting varying by a maximum of 7 d between years (22–29 March). Similarly, eggs hatched from the first week of June through the first week of July (mean, June 15) after a mean incubation period of 76 d, with varying hatching success (mean, 60.5%). We did not find any correlation between incubation period and hatching success. Mean oviposition and hatching date both differed significantly among years probably due to annual variation in nesting cues. We found a significant positive correlation between clutch size and proportion of infertile eggs. Mean clutch size (32.3) and proportion of infertile eggs (mean, 10 eggs) both were significantly higher in clutches in Narayani than in Rapti; however, hatching success was significantly higher in clutches in Rapti. On average, nests had a circumference of 102.3 cm and a depth of 48.5 cm. Mean midriver depth (2.21 m) did not vary over the years but was higher in Narayani than in Rapti; however, mean depth of water nearest to the nest (1.15 m) varied among years and was higher in Rapti. Nests in Narayani were farther from the water's edge than nests in Rapti, suggesting local adaption of female Gharials to prevent flooding of nests owing to severe flooding in the Narayani. This is the first study to present long-term scientific information on nesting and reproduction of Gharials in Nepal. Such information will be pivotal in designing and implementing conservation programs as well as optimizing ex situ breeding practices for Gharials in Nepal.

Environmental variables and macrophytes of lakes of the Chitwan National Park, Central Nepal

Abstract Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment, associated plant and animal life. The present study has been conducted to investigate the environmental variables of water and to make a quantitative analysis of aquatic macrophytes. Five lakes, i.e. Tamor, Beeshazar, Kingfisher, Athaieshazar and Chepang of the Chitwan National Park were studied during the post-monsoon season. Four different sites were studied for each lake. 12 replica of water samples were collected from each site of the lakes and environmental variables of water i.e. pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity, conductivity, total hardness, nitrate, inorganic phosphorus, total solid matter and free CO2 were analyzed. Macrophyte floras were collected during field sampling with the help of a 1m×1m light wooden quadrat and herbaria were prepared following the standard technique. Altogether 10 quadrats (five paired quadrats) were plotted in each site of the study area. Data obtained from water analysis and macrophytes were analyzed by SPSS statistics 20 and CANACO version 4.5. Higher values of nitrate and inorganic phosphorus were found in Beeshazar Lake and Tamor Lake, i.e. 4.41 ±0.52 mg dm–3 and 2.93 ±0.29 mg dm–3, respectively. In most of the lakes, macrophyte species, mostly Eichhornia crassipes was found to be dominant in terms of the importance value index (IVI), whereas in Tamor Lake, Spirodela polyrhiza was dominant. All the studied lakes were in the hypereutrophic category on the basis of nitrate and phosphorus concentration. Runoff of polluted water with agricultural fertilizers, pesticides and untreated industrial discharge as well as domestic wastes from the Khageri canal and excessive growth of invasive macrophytes are major threats to the studied lakes. The luxuriant growth of invasive macrophytes like Eichhornia crassipes also revealed the productive nature of the lakes and they can be taken as ecological indicators of organic pollution.

Evidence of bhellar (Trewia nudiflora) seed dispersal by chital (Axis axis) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal

In riverine forest of Chitwan National Park, Nepal, Bhellar or trewia (Trewia nudiflora) is one of the most abundant tree species. Similarly, chital (Axis axis) is the most abundant and widely distributed deer species. We documented the potential role of chital in seed dispersal of trewia tree in Chitwan. We observed the trewia seeds regurgitated by chital at the Gharial Conservation and Breeding Center (GCBC), Kasara, Chitwan. The trewia seeds were recorded the following morning of the chital sheltering the GCBC. A detailed study is suggested to understand trewia the seed germination success and trewia-chital relationship.

Human-elephant conflict in the buffer zone of Chitwan National Park, Nepal

The interaction between human and wildlife sharing same resources often result negative outcomes and are referred as the human wildlife conflict which affects not only humans but also the wild species. Such conflicts, especially from the mega-herbivores such as elephants has become one of the major management challenges for the Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal. Spatial and temporal patterns of human elephant conflict (HEC) in the buffer zone of CNP were analyzed using park data and questionnaire survey conducted among three hundred and ninety residents of thirteen buffer zone user committees (BZUC) within Chitwan district from October 2016 to May 2017. Five hundred and forty-three HEC incidents including three human deaths and two human injuries were reported in BZUC from January 2013 to April 2017. Crop damage was found to be the most common type of damage caused by elephants and were higher during post-monsoon. Property damage incidents were higher during the winter season. There was a negative association between the number of HEC incidents and distance from the forest edge of the national park. However, no significant relation of HEC incidents was observed with average monthly temperature and rainfall. Despite of increasing HEC incidents, majority of people (77%) had positive attitude towards elephant conservation and considered elephants as nation’s treasure.

Mapping understory invasive plant species with field and remotely sensed data in Chitwan, Nepal

Monitoring invasive species distribution and prevalence is important, but direct field-based assessment is often impractical. In this paper, we introduce and validate a cost-effective method for mapping understory invasive plant species. We utilized Landsat imagery, spectral mixture analysis (SMA) and a maximum entropy (Maxent) modeling framework to map the spatial extent of Mikania micrantha in Chitwan National Park, Nepal and community forests within its buffer zone. We developed a spectral library from reference and image sources and applied multiple endmember SMA (MESMA) to selected Landsat imagery. Incorporating the resultant green vegetation and shade fractions into Maxent, we mapped the distribution of understory M. micrantha in the study area, with training and testing Area under Curve (AUC) values around 0.80, and kappa around 0.55. In vegetated places, especially mature forests, an increase in green vegetation fraction and decrease in shade fraction was associated with higher likelihood of M. micrantha presence. In addition, the inclusion of elevation as a model input further improved map accuracy (AUC around 0.95; kappa around 0.80). Elevation, a surrogate for distance to water in this case, proved to be the determining factor of M. micrantha's distribution in the study area. The combination of MESMA and Maxent can provide significant opportunities for understanding understory vegetation distribution, and contribute to ecological restoration, biodiversity conservation, and provision of sustainable ecosystem services in protected areas.

Ecotourism and Its Impact on Local Community in Sauraha, Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Ecotourism and Its Impact on Local Community in Sauraha, Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Climate change vulnerability of Asia’s most iconic megaherbivore: greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

Climate change is an emerging threat for biodiversity conservation. It has already started impacting species assemblages and ecosystem dynamics. The greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is an iconic and globally threatened megaherbivore. Once widespread across the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, there were fewer than 500 rhinoceros during the early 1960s, confined to isolated patches of suitable habitats in the southern part of Nepal and northern foothills of India, including Brahmaputra floodplains. Following both governments’ successful conservation strategies, the species has been recovering, and its global population at present is over 3500. However, the likely impacts of climate change has not been adequately incorporated into conservation plans for the species and may challenge this success. In this study, we developed a set of 21 vulnerability indicators and assessed the vulnerability of rhinoceros to climate change in Nepal through a review of literature, site observations of prime rhinoceros habitat, key informant interviews, a two-day stakeholders’ consultation workshop, and expert elucidation. Our findings suggest that rhinoceros in Nepal is likely to be ‘moderately vulnerable’ to the impacts of climate change, mainly due to (1) the likelihood of invasive plant species and severe floods in its prime habitat ‘Chitwan National Park’, and (2) fragmented habitat, small population size, droughts and forest fires in Bardia and Shuklaphanta National Parks. We further identified and recommended adaptation measures intended to enhance the resilience of rhinoceros to these likely threats.

Habitat suitability of wild water buffalo (Bubalus arnee) in Babai flood plain of Bardia National Park, Nepal

BackgroundWild water buffalo is an endangered species presently distributed in some countries of South and Southeast Asia with Nepal’s only population in the flood plain of the Koshi river at Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR). Some of the individuals have been translocated to Chitwan National Park of central Nepal but the survival rate is not satisfactory. MethodsThis study was conducted in Babai flood plain of Bardia National Park (BNP) to identify a suitable habitat for wild water buffalo based on habitat parameters of KTWR. The study employed both the geospatial and vegetation analysis method. ResultsThe study found that Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum spontaneum, Cynodon dactylon were the three dominant grass species with important value index (IVI) of 74.15, 60.45, and 11.85 respectively in the Babai flood plain. Similarly, the dominant tree species in the Babai flood plain was Bombax ceiba with the IVI value of 127.81 followed by Shorea robusta, Termenalia tomentosa, Largestroemia parviflora, and Adina cardifolia with the IVI of 48.38, 21.04, 13.03 and 9.19 respectively. Out of the total 108.67 km2 of the entire study area of Babai flood plain, 8.26 km2 was found to be suitable, 100.12 km2 area moderately suitable, and 0.29 km2 area as less suitable. ConclusionsBabai flood plain of BNP is moderately suitable habitat for wild water buffalo. Grassland and wetland management and study of other parameters such as climate and prey-predator relationship is recommended before making the decision to translocate wild water buffaloes to the Babai flood plain of BNP.

A Hayekian Critique of the Mode of Biodiversity Conservation in Nepal

In this paper, I describe the situation of the indigenous community in the Chitwan National Park Area in Nepal. The marginalization of the indigenous communities has its roots in the ideas propagated by western experts on conservation and imposition of American models of protected areas. This has given conservation efforts its militant and intolerant nature. This is ill-suited for the context of South Asia, and particularly the Chitwan National Park Area. The restrictive laws that are based on these notions of estranging people from nature are further marginalizing a vulnerable section of the population. In this context, Hayekian ideas of spontaneous order and the criticism of expert knowledge gives critical insight to see the inadequacies and articulate the ‘misfit’ nature of the current model of conservation. From the study of works of Easterly, Hayek, and Ostrom, it is suggested to be sensitive to the existing people-nature relationship, and give due credence to the dispersed and localized traditional knowledge that may offer deeper insights to benefit the conservation efforts.

Ecotourism’s Impact on Ethnic Groups and Households near Chitwan National Park, Nepal

The Chitwan National Park (CNP) is renowned as a premier attraction in Nepal. This study surveyed the ethnic communities and households living in the buffer zone (BZ) proximate to the CNP, where ecotourism has been strategically introduced to provide an alternative means of livelihood to the locals and to enhance biodiversity conservation. This study examined to what extent these households have economically benefited from local ecotourism activities as well as their perceptions of ecotourism. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data, surveying 145 Kumroj and Amaltari village households using a stratified random sampling technique. The findings indicated that similar ecotourism activities were taking place in both sites. We found that only certain households benefited directly, and that it was mostly the socioeconomically disadvantaged households that missed out on the livelihood opportunities provided by ecotourism. Further, it was revealed that the socio-economically disadvantaged locals still illegally extracted/sold forest products. However, such individuals also acknowledged that ecotourism has increased employment, social development, and forest conservation, and they desired to participate in ecotourism activities. This research can help policymakers better understand the gaps in their policies and restructure them to level the ecotourism playing field for all ethnic groups and economic levels (e.g., landowners versus non-landowners). This study recommends that policymakers rethink and reframe policies to protect the interests of communities living in the BZs of national parks, especially low-income households and/or locals who are disadvantaged because they do not have land or facilities to conduct ecotourism activities.

Safety and nature versus tourists, athlets and residents in Sagarmatha National Park Nepal

The subject of this publication is Sagarmatha National Park located in Nepal, along with the consequences of its popularity among all worlds and the effects of using the environment on selected specific cases. The main purpose of the work is to illustrate the included natural and social conditions as well as the state and perspectives for the development of operational functions in the park. The economic situation of the country will also be presented, taking into account the conditions conducive to the development of inbound tourism.High mountains have now become one of the main collections of scientific research. One of the reasons is the intensive transformation available from the mass nature of qualified tourism or mountain climbing. The world has entered the multifaceted era of 'tourism'. The natural values of the environment are currently covered by one of the basic elements of the supply of the harvest. Man cannot be chased from the mountains! It is necessary to include his harmonized sport, tourism and economic interests with nature protection. Tourism supported and contributes to the development of various forms of nature and environmental protection, which are the first national parks and nature reserves: Yellowstone in the USA founded in 1872, the Royal National Park in Australia founded by the British in modern colonies in 1879 or the second historical Banff National Park in Canada created in 1885. Contemporary forms of environmental protection originate from the romantic west over wild nature and associated with progressive industrialization in the nineteenth century destroying natural ecosystems on an unprecedented scale. Although the ideas of nature protection may already be sought in antiquity for activities that will then be related to religious worship. In China, the first laws on nature protection were announced 4,000 years ago, and in India about 3,000 years ago. The declaration on the protection of forest resources was issued in 1671 by the Danish King Christian V, and 34 years later also by Russian Tsar Peter I. In Poland, the first symptoms of care for forest resources concern the place in 1337, during the reign of Casimir the Great, when he announced statutes prohibiting logging in other people's forests. Conscious protection of the disappearing species in the form of royal law takes place at the end of the 16th century, which provisions protect the forced turns as a result of cutting out large tracts of forests.In Nepal, ecological awareness of the power elites and local people has matured for a long time. Robbery of forest management was widely used, wood for fuel or land was obtained for arable crops. It wasn't until the mid-1960s that King Mahendra issued the first laws on nature protection and provided for penalties for its destruction. The descendant and heir to the throne of King Mahendra - Birendra permanently introduced the protection of natural resources to the country's development plans and in the first year of his reign (1973) he issued the Act on National Parks and Nature Conservation, which took care of a number of animal species and established the first Royal Chitwan National Park. In subsequent years, new national parks and reserves were created in naturally valuable areas. There are 8 national parks in Nepal. The protected areas cover a total of 13% of the area.The inspiration to write this study was data analysis and own observation of both the natural resources of the Sagarmatha National Park, as well as the attitude to the natural environment of its inhabitants as well as athletes and tourists.

Spatial Concentrations of Wildlife Attacks on Humans in Chitwan National Park, Nepal.

Simple SummaryWildlife attacks on people in and around protected areas, where the same resources are shared by both people and wildlife, are one of the major conservation challenges in getting effective public support. This empirical study contributed to new understanding of wildlife attacks on people in the landscape of Chitwan National Park (CNP) and its neighborhood based on quantitative survey data from 2003–2013. The results show that the majority of wildlife attacks occurred in forests and cultivated land where people mostly unaware of the behavior of animals were attacked. Mostly the concentration of the attacks occurred in less than one victim per km2. A relatively important correlation between land use and animal attacks is visible in the cases of the sloth bear and the leopard. The typical land use structure of sloth bear attacks with more than one victim per 2 km2 is given by the dominant percentage of cultivated land, forest, and sandy areas. The remarkably high bear density is due to a relatively high percentage of water bodies, grass land and bush land preferred by the bear. Potential attacks can be reduced through effective management of park and buffer zones, and concerned authorities should also provide education about species-specific behavior of animal attacks.The study was conducted within and adjacent to Chitwan National Park in Nepal (CNP), where several wildlife species are involved in conflicts with humans. We assessed the spatial relationships between the number of victims/km2 (=victim density or VD) of attack by wildlife (elephant, rhino, wild boar, sloth bear, leopard or tiger) versus landscape features, including both natural habitat type and land use by humans (e.g., nursery, orchard or cultivated). We identified four levels of VD, ranging from <1 V (victim)/4 km2 to >1 V/2 km2 for each land use zone, then tested for correlations at one or more of those VD between each pair of wildlife species across different land use types. Our results high correlation for sloth bear and leopard (r ≈ 0.8), for all species except elephant and wild boar at VD > 1 V/4 km2 (r > 0.9) and for leopard vs. rhinoceros (r = 0.99) across land use types at 1 V/4 km2) indicate some risk-reduction measures. One of them would be division of each buffer zone into three concentric rings, for instance ranging from high-risk adjacent areas to areas of high use by humans, to low-risk where human use is low. This revision would facilitate giving local people more voice in implementing conservation measures and reducing risks.

Local perceptions of forest rules and interactions between rules, ecotourism, and human-wildlife conflicts: Evidence from Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Local perceptions of forest rules and interactions between rules, ecotourism, and human-wildlife conflicts: Evidence from Chitwan National Park, Nepal