Hill Tracts Research Articles

Assessing the role of the for-profit private healthcare sector in malaria elimination efforts in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study of challenges and opportunities

BackgroundAmong 13 endemic districts, the Chittagong Hill Tracts bear more than 90% of Bangladesh’s malaria burden. Despite the private sector’s prominence in rural healthcare, its role in malaria management remains underutilized. This study aimed to strategize leveraging the for-profit private sector, such as diagnostic and treatment centers, to bolster national malaria surveillance and control, advancing Bangladesh toward malaria elimination by 2030.MethodsThis mixed-method study commenced with a questionnaire-based cross-sectional survey followed by selected focused group discussions (FGDs) among the participants. Three FGDs were held with the for-profit service providers so that further insights and qualitative viewpoints of them can be utilized in situation analysis. Based on the endemicity and strategic priorities, a comprehensive mapping of private for-profit facilities from the regions comprising 15 sub-districts across 8 chosen districts (7 malaria endemic districts and the rest non-endemic districts) was created. For the non-endemic zone, the sub-districts were selected based on their proximity to an area with high malaria transmission.ResultsAmong the 104 representative participants, majority were male (n = 92, 88.5%), had a diploma in their respective fields (n = 53, 51%) and were involved either in laboratory work (n = 49, 47.1%) or as owners/managers of health centers (n = 41, 39.4%). The selected health facilities were close to the corresponding Upazila Health Complexes (mean distance 2.8 km), but were distantly located from the designated district hospitals (mean distance 48.9 km). The main sources of RDT kits (62.3%) and anti-malarial drugs (63.2%) were local wholesale markets. A large share of the corresponding facilities neither provided malaria treatment services (81.7%) nor worked with the NMEP (93.3%).ConclusionsThis study highlights challenges and recommendations for engaging private for-profit health facilities in Bangladesh’s malaria elimination efforts. The identified challenges include low-quality RDTs, staff shortages, and inadequate capacity building. Recommendations emphasize effective training, stakeholder interaction, and enhanced oversight for successful malaria control efforts.

Becoming a Chief through Leadership Experience: Evidence from a Lab-in-the-Field Experiment in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

Becoming a Chief through Leadership Experience: Evidence from a Lab-in-the-Field Experiment in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

First record of the grand leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros grandis (Hipposideridae), from Bangladesh

Abstract We report the first record of the grand leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros grandis, from a cave in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. We confirmed its identity using morphometric and molecular analyses. This study enhances the number of national bat fauna and underscores the importance of comprehensive bat surveys in Bangladesh.

Forest Restoration through Village Common Forests in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh: The Role of NGO Interventions

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are widely recognized for their support of biodiversity conservation and forest restoration in tropical developing countries. In the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) of Bangladesh, ethnic forest-dependent communities have long maintained the Village Common Forest (VCF), an ancestral forest managed for community well-being. In recent years, some VCFs in the CHT have received support from local and international NGOs due to their perceived role in supporting biodiversity, ecosystem services, and improving local livelihoods. Although such support remains limited, its impacts on forest restoration and vegetation are not yet fully investigated. In the present study, we used remote sensing techniques and field surveys to measure vegetation cover changes and tree diversity in selected VCFs in the area. Our findings indicate that vegetation condition and tree diversity were better in NGO-supported VCFs compared with those without NGO intervention. Based on our study, we recommend increasing NGO involvement in VCF management with a more holistic and ecosystem-based approach, fostering institutional cooperation addressing land ownership issues, developing a market for forest ecosystem services, and improving local capacity for science-based forest management and ecosystem restoration in the CHT.

Entangled in Regional Geopolitics - Tibetans in the Special Frontier Force of India

The Special Frontier Force (S.F.F.) was raised by the Intelligence Bureau of India in the immediate aftermath of the Indo China war of 1962. Initially composed of Tibetan youths, it was known as the Establishment 22. Records indicate that it was raised by India in coordination with US intelligence Agency, the C.I.A. and with full endorsement of Washington. The force was trained by C.I.A., among other things to collect intelligence from across India’s China border with the help of electronic devices. The C.I.A. patronage was gradually withdrawn after 1964. In India, the force was commissioned to action in Chittagong Hill tracts in 1971, on the eve of Indo Pakistan War over Bangladesh issue. Later they took part in Operation Bluestar in Punjab and fought in the war of Kargil in 1999. Their activities and operations had so far been kept under total secret. Recently they were employed by the Government of India in the border faceoff with China in Ladakh in August 2020. The death of Nyima Tenzin of S.S.F. turned the spotlight on them and their sacrifice was highlighted. The importance of the S.F.F. in India’s security set up has to be understood in the context of the regional geopolitics and India’s Tibet policy. The force was raised in the era of Cold war when the C.I.A. was helping the Tibetan resistant warriors, the Chushi Gandruk, fighting from Mustang in Nepal. India, too was ready to help them even if covertly, to get back Tibet’s political status. Raising of the force gave not only a job opportunity to the Tibetan refugee youths but served their nationalist aspirations and suited India’s need of a trained mountain force post 1962 to combat China in the Himalayan region. But following the withdrawal of the C.I.A., Sino US rapprochement in the 1970s and the subsequent end of the Cold War, the priorities changed in the US and India’s policy towards China also went through several phases. The recent deterioration of relations with China has once again brought Tibetan issue to the limelight. India’s recognition of the S.F.F. actions in the war indicates how India, in order to put pressure on China is giving space to the Tibetan CTA (The Government in Exile, in India) and the Tibetans in S.F.F. The Tibetans have not been able to achieve independence but they are now being used in the political rivalry of the two regional powers.

Counterinsurgency, forest governance, and the dynamics of change in the forests of South Asia: Transition in Bangladesh's forests

Since the end of the Cold War, attention has increasingly focused globally on the nexus of conflict, natural resources, and governance, particularly in forested regions. This paper presents a comprehensive historical and comparative analysis of forest and biodiversity loss in Bangladesh over the last 50 years, attending to the impacts of counterinsurgency in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) and governance changes in the plains. Drawing on Peter Vandergeest and Nancy Peluso's seminal concept of “political forests,” the study critically analyzes how counterinsurgency, state-led development, and green militarization in the CHT, alongside neoliberal development, commercialization, and land grabbing in the plains, have reshaped forest governance and territorial control in the country. The analysis reveals that counterinsurgencies in the CHT, driven by domestic priorities and strategic interests, expanded colonial-style territorial control over forests, thereby exacerbating biodiversity loss. In the plains, neoliberal governance has promoted forest degradation through commercial exploitation and state-sanctioned land grabbing, with economic growth being pursued at the cost of environmental sustainability. This paper presents a critique of both militarized and neoliberal approaches to conservation, demonstrating how these models prioritize political and economic agendas over ecological integrity and local community needs. In conclusion, the study advocates a paradigmatic shift toward inclusive, community-centered forest governance that empowers local populations and emphasizes environmental stewardship, challenging dominant state-centric and market-driven approaches to forest management.

Transformation of Jhum (Shifting Cultivation) to Forest Plantation: Effect on Soil Properties in the Hill Tracts of Bangladesh

Transformation of Jhum (Shifting Cultivation) to Forest Plantation: Effect on Soil Properties in the Hill Tracts of Bangladesh

Cultural Survival and Rights: The Unfinished Journey of the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord

The signing of the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord (CHTPA) in 1997 pledged to end a decades-old violent armed struggle while giving several reparations to the indigenous people of Bangladesh's southern hill zone. The agreement has not yet produced fallouts after 25 years; has not been implemented, and indigenous peoples' grief, desolation, servitude, and mistreatment continued. Communities are losing their identities, cultures, languages, livelihoods, and assets and becoming increasingly vulnerable and disadvantaged. This paper aims to examine why peace agreements have been ineffective in protecting Indigenous peoples from violence and harassment and to explore how institutional and legal mechanisms have failed to restore their lost dignity and rights actively.

Land Dispute Settlement: A Key Issue to Ensure Long-lasting Peace in Chattogram Hill Tracts

Land Dispute Settlement: A Key Issue to Ensure Long-lasting Peace in Chattogram Hill Tracts

Impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases: Exploring hotspots, recent trends and future outlooks in Bangladesh

Climate change is a significant risk multiplier and profoundly influences the transmission dynamics, geographical distribution, and resurgence of vector-borne diseases (VBDs). Bangladesh has a noticeable rise in VBDs attributed to climate change. Despite the severity of this issue, the interconnections between climate change and VBDs in Bangladesh have yet to be thoroughly explored. To address this research gap, our review meticulously examined existing literature on the relationship between climate change and VBDs in Bangladesh. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach, we identified 3849 records from SCOPUS, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases. Ultimately, 22 research articles meeting specific criteria were included. We identified that the literature on the subject matter of this study is non-contemporaneous, with 68% of studies investing datasets before 2014, despite studies on climate change and dengue nexus having increased recently. We pinpointed Dhaka and Chittagong Hill Tracts as the dengue and malaria research hotspots, respectively. We highlighted that the 2023 dengue outbreak illustrates a possible shift in dengue-endemic areas in Bangladesh. Moreover, dengue cases surged by 317% in 2023 compared to 2019 records, with a corresponding 607% increase in mortality compared to 2022. A weak connection was observed between dengue incidents and climate drivers, including the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). However, no compelling evidence supported an association between malaria cases, and Sea Surface Temperature (SST) in the Bay of Bengal, along with the NINO3 phenomenon. We observed minimal microclimatic and non-climatic data inclusion in selected studies. Our review holds implications for policymakers, urging the prioritization of mitigation measures such as year-round surveillance and early warning systems. Ultimately, it calls for resource allocation to empower researchers in advancing the understanding of VBD dynamics amidst changing climates.

The Minority Languages of Tripura with Special Reference to Kokborok Language: A Study on the Language Demography of Tripura, India

Linguistically, Tripura is a case of one dominant language and several minority languages. This study aims to identify the minority languages endemic to Tripura, with the objective of preserving and protecting the identified languages. The present study is based on the secondary data collected from the Census of India, 2011 and Ethnologue, 2024. The descriptive research method has been used to analyse the data. The study reveals that eight minority languages are enlisted by the Directorate of Kokborok and Other Minority Languages in Tripura. The eight languages are Kokborok, Manipuri, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Kuki-Mizo, Garo, Halam, Chakma and Mogh. Out of the eight minority languages enlisted by the said directorate of Tripura, Kokborok is the only language endemic to Tripura, and other minority languages have their language core areas outside the state. The core area of Kokborok is situated in Tripura, and the periphery areas are spread in the adjacent Indian states of Mizoram and Assam and Chittagong hill tracts of Bangladesh. However, the Kokborok language is a vulnerable minority language in its core area. The language speakers account for only 25.9 per cent of the total speakers in Tripura. Even after gaining official status on January 19, 1979, the Kokborok language is not widely used in educational institutions, official circulars, press, television, courts, and financial or social institutions, weakening language vitality. Therefore, considering the endemic character of the Kokborok language, meaning that the Kokborok language holds unique traits and adaptations to environmental conditions in the region, its minority status and low language vitality, the Kokborok language needs to be preserved and protected.

Data driven forest fire susceptibility mapping in Bangladesh

Forests are essential natural resources that serve to facilitate economic activity while also providing an essential impact on climate regulation and the carbon cycle. In the Chittagong hill tracts, forest fires significantly contribute to the eradication of forests and the depletion of biodiversity. As a result, addressing the forest fire hazard is crucial for mitigating its potential negative effects. By implementing machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) algorithms, the primary aim of this research is to determine which areas within the CHT are most prone to forest fires. Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Classification and Regression Trees (CART), Categorical Boosting (Catboost), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Deep Neural Network (DNN), Gradient Boosting Decision Tree (GBDT), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGboost) are among these algorithms. This research investigates 267 past forest fire incidents while incorporating fifteen predictive parameters for forest fires. The utmost accuracy is demonstrated by the Catboost model, which has an AUC value of 0.83. Applied models the Bandarbon and Rangamati regions of the Chittagong hill tracts have been thoroughly analyzed and discovered to be extremely and moderately vulnerable to forest fires due to their intricate physical and social characteristics. The Catboost model indicates that 67.38% of the total regions and 0.59% of the regions in Chittagoong hill tracts are classified as moderate and high susceptible zones, respectively. The results of this study present the models utilized in the present analysis exhibit a high level of effectiveness. Furthermore, the findings indicated that the NDVI and annual temperature had the most influence. The application of both ML and DL approaches in the Chittagong hill tracts for the first time resulted in models that exhibited excellent accuracy and precision, combining perfectly with the actual conditions on the ground. This study will undeniably assist the local government in implementing efficient governance and preservation strategies for the sustainable maintenance of forest resources, while enhancing the well-being of individuals living in and around the forest. Forest fire susceptibility assessment can be utilized in various locations worldwide that include significant natural and human-induced characteristics.

"Advocating Dharma And Ahimsa: Mitigating Human Rights Violations And Vulnerabilities Among Indigenous Communities In The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT)"

"Advocating Dharma And Ahimsa: Mitigating Human Rights Violations And Vulnerabilities Among Indigenous Communities In The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT)"

Relationality in Indigenous Climate Change Education Research: A Learning Journey from Indigenous Communities in Bangladesh

Abstract This article explores my relational learning reflections with the Laitu Khyeng Indigenous community in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), Bangladesh, focusing on Indigenous perspectives on climate change education. Implementing a relational theoretical framework, I share my reflections on relational learning in this research as part of being accountable to the Indigenous community. Through exploring Indigenous land-based climate change research, five central themes emerge Indigenous land rights, relationship with the environment, community-led relationality as collaboration, intergenerational relational knowledge and relationality as ethical reciprocity. The findings explore the intrinsic connection between Indigenous communities and their ancestral territories, emphasising the significance of upholding Indigenous sovereignty over land for sustainable adaptation to climate change. In this article, I highlight the importance of relational learning as a form of education, fostering resilience rooted in preserving traditional practices and spaces. Relationality with the environment is central to Indigenous climate education, promoting understanding and reciprocity with the land. In my learning, I learned that community dynamics and collaborative learning are essential for effective climate education, emphasising collective action and diverse perspectives. In relational learning, inter-generational knowledge transmission ensures the preservation and sharing of traditional land-based knowledge across generations, forming the foundation for sustainable adaptation strategies. Ethical engagement and reciprocity guide research interactions, emphasising mutual respect and cultural sensitivity. By centring Indigenous perspectives and knowledge systems, this study advocates for community-led approaches to climate change education, fostering resilience and environmental stewardship within Indigenous communities.

First record of Great Himalayan leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros armiger (Hipposideridae) from Bangladesh

Abstract We report the first record of the Great Himalayan leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros armiger from a cave in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. We confirmed its identity using morphometric measurements and visual observations supplemented with photographs. This report steps up the number of national bat fauna, suggesting countrywide surveys for a comprehensive inventory of bats for Bangladesh.

Tobacco Farmers’ Perceptions of Unsafe Tobacco Cultivation and Its Effect on Health and Environment: A Case of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

As the environment is severely harmed by tobacco (like growing, processing, production, and disposal), the study was set forth to determine the tobacco cultivation status and perceptions of the tobacco farmers toward the environmental and health hazards of tobacco farmers due to tobacco cultivation. We conducted the study in Lama Upazila, Bandarban Hill District, Bangladesh. The survey method was applied to collect the necessary data, utilizing a pre-structured interview schedule, from 242 tobacco farmers who were selected randomly. The study’s results portrayed that the average tobacco cultivation farming experience of the farmers was about 10 years, and the farmers occupied about 0.97 acres of land for cultivating tobacco, while 81% of the tobacco farmers utilized the plain lands for cultivating tobacco, although the study area was a hilly one. A huge amount of fuel wood (average 5390 kg) was required for the curing of tobacco leaves. The farmers produced about 2 MT of tobacco per year and earned about BDT 89,066 (USD 810) from this production. Given that 77% of the tobacco farmers in the research area felt that tobacco production increased the risks to the environment and tobacco farmers health, their opinions ranged from somewhat to highly favorable, which meant they were concerned about the environment and health hazards. The research’s findings provide useful background knowledge on the detrimental effects of Bangladesh’s tobacco farming.

Cultural adaptation in the era of climate change: An ethnographic study on the resilience of indigenous people at Chittagong Hill Tracts area in Bangladesh

Climate change has gained global recognition as one of the most urgent challenges in recent decades. Many indigenous people attempt to overcome great challenges in their lives by adhering to their cultural customs and traditional knowledge. This is especially true for those who live in isolated, hilly places and are dependent on natural resources. The aim of the paper is to critically investigate the cultural facets of indigenous people's adaptation to and resilience to climate change in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), namely in the Rangamati Sadar sub-districts of the Rangamati districts, in Bangladesh. This paper also examines how cultural components in indigenous community are changing and influencing the adaptation process in adverse situations. This study used a critical ethnography technique in conjunction with participant observation, in-depth interviews (N ​= ​55), and focus group discussions (N ​= ​5, 45 participants) during a one-year period (October 2019 to October 2020). According to the study's findings, climate change-related risks have significant adverse effects on indigenous people. However, they develop their strategies to adjust to the adverse environment, like building different kinds of houses, changing cultural customs, relying less on natural resources, and adhering to their indigenous knowledge. They also strengthen their prayers and ceremonial practices, which reinforce their communal ties and allow them to become more resilient against challenges in their community. The popular belief that Indigenous people are stupid, poor, and helpless while they wait for outside help is challenged by this study. It also refutes the discourse that indigenous strategies and knowledge are not undervalued and can be an effective instrument for the adaptation process and combating hazards.

Gut microbiome composition reveals the distinctiveness between the Bengali people and the Indigenous ethnicities in Bangladesh

Ethnicity has a significant role in shaping the composition of the gut microbiome, which has implications in human physiology. This study intends to investigate the gut microbiome of Bengali people as well as several indigenous ethnicities (Chakma, Marma, Khyang, and Tripura) residing in the Chittagong Hill Tracts areas of Bangladesh. Following fecal sample collection from each population, part of the bacterial 16 s rRNA gene was amplified and sequenced using Illumina NovaSeq platform. Our findings indicated that Bangladeshi gut microbiota have a distinct diversity profile when compared to other countries. We also found out that Bangladeshi indigenous communities had a higher Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio than the Bengali population. The investigation revealed an unclassified bacterium that was differentially abundant in Bengali samples while the genus Alistipes was found to be prevalent in Chakma samples. Further research on these bacteria might help understand diseases associated with these populations. Also, the current small sample-sized pilot study hindered the comprehensive understanding of the gut microbial diversity of the Bangladeshi population and its potential health implications. However, our study will help establish a basic understanding of the gut microbiome of the Bangladeshi population.

Prevalence and factors associated with digital addiction among students taking university entrance tests: a GIS-based study

BackgroundThe surge in digital media consumption, coupled with the ensuing consequences of digital addiction, has witnessed a rapid increase, particularly after the initiation of the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite some studies exploring specific technological addictions, such as internet or social media addiction, in Bangladesh, there is a noticeable gap in research focusing on digital addiction in a broader context. Thus, this study aims to investigate digital addiction among students taking the university entrance test, examining its prevalence, contributing factors, and geographical distribution using GIS techniques.MethodsData from a cross-sectional survey were collected from a total of 2,157 students who were taking the university entrance test at Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh. A convenience sampling method was applied for data collection using a structured questionnaire. Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS 25 Version and AMOS 23 Version, whereas ArcGIS 10.8 Version was used for the geographical distribution of digital addiction.ResultsThe prevalence of digital addiction was 33.1% (mean score: 16.05 ± 5.58). Those students who are attempting the test for a second time were more likely to be addicted (42.7% vs. 39.1%), but the difference was not statistically significant. Besides, the potential factors predicted for digital addiction were student status, satisfaction with previous mock tests, average monthly expenditure during the admission test preparation, and depression. No significant difference was found between digital addiction and districts. However, digital addiction was higher in the districts of Manikganj, Rajbari, Shariatpur, and Chittagong Hill Tract areas, including Rangamati, and Bandarban.ConclusionsThe study emphasizes the pressing need for collaborative efforts involving educational policymakers, institutions, and parents to address the growing digital addiction among university-bound students. The recommendations focus on promoting alternative activities, enhancing digital literacy, and imposing restrictions on digital device use, which are crucial steps toward fostering a healthier digital environment and balanced relationship with technology for students.

Challenges and Institutional Barriers to Forest and Landscape Restoration in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh

Preventing, halting, and reversing ecosystem degradation is now a global priority, partly due to the declaration of the United Nations (UN) Decade on Ecosystem Restoration by the UN General Assembly 2021–2030 on 1 March 2019. Apart from the most recent global target to protect 30% of the natural planet by 2030 as part of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework agreed during COP15, there are several other global goals and targets. The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) has also pledged to restore 0.75 million hectares of forests as part of the Bonn Challenge. The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh contain almost one-third of the country’s state-owned forests and are home to 12 ethnic communities, whose livelihoods are dependent on forests. Although once rich in biodiversity, the majority of the forests in the region are highly degraded due to faulty management, complex institutional arrangements, and land disputes with locals. The CHT, therefore, represent the most promising region for ecosystem restoration through forest and landscape restoration (FLR). Here, using the secondary literature, we examine the current institutional arrangements and drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in the CHT region and potential benefits and modalities to make FLR successful in the region. Based on our study, we suggest that institutional reform is essential for successful FLR in the CHT. We also discuss key interventions that are necessary to halt ecosystem degradation and to secure community participation in natural resources management in the region.