Chitin Yield Research Articles

Extraction and Characterization of Chitin from the Beetle Holotrichia parallela Motschulsky

Insect chitin was isolated from adult Holotrichia parallela by treatment with 1 M HCl and 1 M NaOH, following by 1% potassium permanganate solution for decolorization. The yield of chitin from this species is 15%. This insect chitin was compared with the commercial α-chitin from shrimp, by infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and elemental analysis. Both chitins exhibited similar chemical structures and physicochemical properties. Adult H. parallela is thus a promising alternative source of chitin.

Chitin and L(+)-lactic acid production from crab (Callinectes bellicosus) wastes by fermentation of Lactobacillus sp. B2 using sugar cane molasses as carbon source

Crab wastes are employed for simultaneous production of chitin and L(+)-lactic acid by submerged fermentation of Lactobacillus sp. B2 using sugar cane molasses as carbon source. Response surface methodology was applied to design the culture media considering demineralization. Fermentations in stirred tank reactor (2L) using selected conditions produced 88% demineralization and 56% deproteinization with 34% yield of chitin and 19.5 gL(-1) of lactic acid (77% yield). The chitin purified from fermentation displayed 95% degree of acetylation and 0.81 and 1 ± 0.125% of residual ash and protein contents, respectively.

Process Design of Microbiological Chitin Extraction

Bacillus licheniformis Lactobacillus acidophilus Chitin extraction from shrimp shells involves two processing steps, these are the deproteination and demineralization process. The aim of this experiment was to compare the order of the chitin extraction process. The first experiment was deproteination of fresh shrimp shells followed by demineralization process and the second one was demineralization of fresh shrimp shells followed by deproteination. F11.1, a proteolytic producing bacterium, was used for the deproteination process. FNCC116, a lactic acid bacterium, was used for the demineralization process. The deproteination was done in a 1 liter fermenter jar at 55 oC, 250 rpm and 2.5 vvm aeration for 60 h. The demineralization was done in the same size fermenter at 30 oC and 50 rpm agitation for 48 h. The experimental results showed that demineralization followed by the deproteination process resulted in a better chitin yield than when the process was conducted in the opposite order. The first process reduced 47.37% protein and 50.23% ash, whereas the second process reduced 79.61% protein and 88.65% ash.

Honeybee corpses as an available source of chitin

AbstractCorpses of naturally died honeybees were used as a raw material for chitin isolation. Process of deproteinization of the powder made from clean bee corpses was carried out in the presence of 1M NaOH at 80°C. Influence of time of alkaline treatment on the yield and molar mass of chitin was studied and optimal conditions of proteins removal were found. Process of final depigmentation of protein‐free remainders was carried out using oxidization–reduction reagents. Dependences of the yield of reaction and molar mass of the obtained chitin samples from concentration of oxidizing agent KMnO4 and from time of discoloring treatment were determined. Final product—high quality chitin with molar masses in range from 318 × 103 to 424 × 103 Da—was obtained in amount of 18% from initial mass of honeybee corpses. Chemical structure of chitin was determined in 1H NMR investigation. It was found that honeybee chitin has high degree of acetylation of about 96%. FTIR spectra of honeybee chitin did not differ from FTIR spectrum of control sample of shrimps chitin with degree of acetylation about 95%. Results of quantitative determination of isolated chitin and its molar characteristic showed that applied treatment of honeybee corpses allowed to acquire successfully chitin of high quality in wide range of molar masses. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008

Sonication-Assisted Extraction of Chitin from North Atlantic Shrimps (Pandalus borealis)

The influence of sonication during extraction of chitin from North Atlantic shrimp (NAS) shells (Pandalus borealis) on chitin yield, purity, and crystallinity was investigated. Shells were peeled, washed, lyophilized, ground, and suspended for 4 h in 0.25 M HCl (1:40) at 40 degrees C followed by ultrasonication at 41 W/cm(2) for 0, 1, and 4 h, respectively. Demineralized shells were lyophilized, resuspended in 0.25 M NaOH (1:40), and ultrasonicated at 41 W/cm(2) for 0, 1, and 4 h to remove proteins. The yield and mineral and protein contents were determined after each processing step. The purity of extracted chitin was determined from the total amount of glucosamine. The crystallinity index and size of crystals were calculated from wide-angle X-ray scattering measurements. Scanning electron microscope images were recorded to evaluate morphological changes in samples. The yield of chitin from NAS decreased from 16.5 to 11.4% for 0 and 1 h sonicated samples, respectively, which was attributed to increased concentrations of depolymerized materials in the wash water. Sonication did not enhance the removal of minerals. The application of ultrasound enhanced the removal of proteins from 39.8 to 10.6, 8.3, and 7.3% after 0, 1, and 4 h of sonication treatments. The crystallinity index of chitin decreased from 87.6 to 79.1 and 78.5% after 1 and 4 h of sonication, yielding chitosans with crystallinity indices of 76.7, 79.5, and 74.8% after deacetylation, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy scans indicated that the degree of acetylation of chitins was unaffected by sonication. Comparison of the extraction results of NAS with that from freshwater prawns indicated that more impurities were left in NAS chitin, suggesting that composition and structural arrangement of chitin in shells influence the efficiency of ultrasound-assisted extraction.

Copper(II) uptake by Pleurotus mutilus biomass, chitin and chitosan

Various treated forms of dead Pleurotus mutilus biomass, chitin and chitosan were used for the removal of Cu(II) ions from aqueous solutions. The biomass was found to be as efficient as chitin and maximum yield was obtained at pH around 6. The yield was increased significantly with respect to the free matter when treatments with 0.2% glutaraldehyde or 5% NaOH were perfomed, 23, 42 and 30 mg/g of dry matter respectively being obtained after 60 min equilibrium time. In multi-component solutions containing Cd(II) and Zn(II) the binding capacity toward Cu(II) was reduced.

Sonication-Assisted Extraction of Chitin from Shells of Fresh Water Prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)

The effect of sonication during chitin extraction from freshwater prawn shells on yield, purity, and crystallinity of chitin was investigated. Dry prawn shells were suspended for 4 h in 0.25 M HCl at 40 degrees C while they were sonicated for 0, 1, and 4 h. Demineralized shells were lyophilized, resuspended in 0.25 M NaOH, and sonicated again for 0, 1, and 4 h for protein removal. The yield of chitin decreased from 8.28 to 5.02% for nonsonicated and sonicated samples, respectively, which was attributed to losses of depolymerized materials in the wash water. The application of ultrasound enhanced the removal of proteins. In nontreated shells, the amount of protein was 44.01% and was reduced to 12.55, 10.59, and 7.45% after 0, 1, and 4 h of sonication treatments. The glucosamine content slightly decreased with sonication probably because of losses due to depolymerization. The crystallinity indices of chitins decreased as the time of sonication increased. The degree of acetylation of chitins was unaffected by sonication, but the degree of acetylation of chitosans produced from sonicated chitin decreased from 70.0 to 68.7 and 61.4% for 1 and 4 h sonicated samples, respectively.

Characterization of chitosan and chitin produced from silkworm crysalides

Chitin, extracted from silkworm chrysalides, was employed for the production of a high purity and porous chitosan, as observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Chitin and chitosan produced were characterized by infrared (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance ( 13C-NMR) spectroscopy, thermal analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and SEM. Two methods of chitin and chitosan extractions were investigated and compared, and although these were of high purity, the yield of chitin and chitosan were low if compared with the chitin and chitosan produced from crustacean shells. The yield of chitosan production by chitin deacetylation or degree of deacetylation (DD) was an average 83%. The molecular weight (MW) was determined by viscosimetric methods.

Chitin production by Lactobacillus fermentation of shrimp biowaste in a drum reactor and its chemical conversion to chitosan

AbstractChitin was produced by fermenting shrimp heads and shells with Lactobacillus plantarum 541 in a drum reactor with an internal volume of 3 dm3. The crude chitin yield from heads and shells was 4.5 and 13% respectively, comparable to the values obtained by the chemical method. For shrimp heads 83% deproteination and 88% demineralisation and for shrimp shells 66% deproteination and 63% demineralisation were achieved. The liquor obtained in both cases was of good sensory quality with a high content of essential amino acids and therefore with potential to produce protein powder for human consumption. The crude chitin was refined and converted to chitosan using 12.5 M NaOH. The chitosan obtained had a residual ash and protein content below 1%, a solubility of more than 98%, a viscosity in the range 50–400 cP and a degree of deacetylation of 81–84%. The molecular weight was in the range (0.8–1.4) × 106 Da. IR analysis indicated that the chitosan obtained through fermentation was similar to that obtained by the chemical method. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry

Physicochemical Properties and Bioactivity of Fungal Chitin and Chitosan

Chitinous material was extracted from mycelia of Aspergillus niger and Mucor rouxii grown in yeast peptone dextrose broth for 15 and 21 days, respectively. The extracted material was characterized for purity, degree of acetylation, and crystallinity and tested for antibacterial and eliciting properties. The maximum glucosamine level determined in the mycelium of A. niger was 11.10% dw and in the mycelium of M. rouxii was 20.13% dw. On the basis of the stepwise extraction of freeze-dried mycelia, it appeared that M. rouxii mycelia contained both chitin and chitosan, whereas A. niger contained only chitin. The yields of crude chitin from A. niger and M. rouxii were 24.01 and 13.25%, respectively, and the yield of chitosan from M. rouxii was 12.49%. Significant amounts (7.42-39.81%) of glucan were associated with chitinous compounds from both species and could not be eliminated by the extraction method used. The degrees of acetylation were determined to be 76.53 and 50.07% for chitin from A. niger and M. rouxii, respectively, and 19.5% for M. rouxii chitosan. The crystallinity of fungal chitin and chitosan was estimated to be less intense than in corresponding materials from shrimp shells. The extracted chitin and chitosan in a concentration of 0.1% reduced Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 2576 counts by 0.5-1.5 logs during a 4 day incubation in tryptic soy broth at 25 degrees C. Furthermore, all tested chitinous materials from fungal sources significantly reduced lesions caused by Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum in harvested apples.

Chitin and ChitosanValue-Added Products from Mushroom Waste

Accumulation of chitinous material in Agaricus bisporus stalks was determined during postharvest storage at 4 and 25 degrees C. The chitinous material was extracted after alkali treatment and acid reflux of alkali insoluble material and analyzed for yield, purity, degree of acetylation (DA), and crystallinity. The total glucosamine content in mushroom stalks increased from 7.14% dry weight (DW) at harvest (day 0) to 11.00% DW and 19.02% DW after 15 days of storage at 4 degrees C and 5 days of storage at 25 degrees C, respectively. The yield of crude chitin isolated from stalks stored at 25 degrees C for 5 days was 27.00% DW and consisted of 46.08% glucosamine and 20.94% neutral polysaccharides. The DA of fungal chitin was from 75.8 to 87.6%, which is similar to commercially available crustacean chitin. The yield of crude fungal chitin of 0.65-1.15% on a fresh basis indicates the potential for the utilization of these mushroom byproducts.

Improved chitin production by pretreatment of shrimp shells

AbstractPretreatment of shrimp shells was investigated in order to lower the costs and to improve the sustainability of chitin production. Physical pretreatment comprising drying, grinding and sieving is attractive for the recovery of 50% of shrimp protein as a dry powder. Pretreatment of shells by shearing in acidified water results in the removal of up to 60% of the protein and a reduction of their mineral content without a decrease in the chitin yield. Both pretreatment procedures will lead to cleaner technology for chitin production, to a considerably lower need for chemicals, to useful protein by‐products, and to less‐contaminated industrial effluent. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry

Effect of Shrimp Processing Procedures on the Quality and Quantity of Extracted Chitin from the Shells of Northern Shrimp Pandalus borealis

The effect of various shrimp processing procedures on the quality and quantity of extracted chitin from the shells of Northern Species Pandalus borealis was investigated. The shrimp were caught from the Northern Shrimp Fishery in 2001 and processed using two different procedures. The first procedure involved cooking in boiling salt water on board the vessel, then packing on ice until delivery for peeling at an inshore peeling plant. The second procedure involved quick freezing of individual shrimp, followed by delivery for cooking and peeling in an inshore plant. Deproteinization, demineralization, and pigment removal procedures were developed for chitin extraction. The results showed that processing procedures of shrimp can result in a variation in chitin yield of up to 85% and can significantly affect the organic matter and ash contents as well as the mineral profile in the shell waste and extracted chitin. Quick freezing of individual shrimp on board of vessels followed by inshore cooking and peeling results in shell waste that produced a high yield of chitin with superior quality.

A factorial design analysis of chitin production by Cunninghamella elegans.

Chitin production by Cunninghamella elegans (IFM 46109) was studied with a two-level full factorial design, varying time of cultivation and the concentration of D-glucose, L-asparagine, and thiamine in the culture medium. The material extracted was characterized by infrared and NMR spectroscopy. The highest chitin yield, 28.8%, was comparable with the highest in the literature and was obtained with a medium containing 60 g.L-1 of glucose, 3 g.L-1 of asparagine, and 0.008 mg.L-1 of thiamine. Increasing the time of cultivation from 24 h to 72 h did not affect chitin production. The three factors showed significant positive effects on chitin production, without interactions between them.

Sonication of chitin–glucan, preparation of water-soluble fractions and characterization by HPLC

A water-insoluble chitin–glucan complex, isolated from the mycelium of Aspergillus niger, was swollen in various aqueous media and treated subsequently by high-energy sonication. The concentration of the resulting water-soluble polysaccharide fractions was dependent on the swelling medium, the amount of the chitin–glucan complex in the suspension, and on the time of sonication. The yields of water-soluble chitin–glucan were within the range 13.6 to 24.4% relative to the mass of the original chitin–glucan. The nitrogen content obtained for the samples of water-soluble chitin–glucan indicated a higher content of chitin (3.45% of nitrogen in high-molecular fraction) than in the original water-insoluble chitin–glucan sample (1.8%). The distribution of the molecular weights of the water-soluble fractions prepared was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography.

Deacetylated chitin used as adsorbent in production of clarified pineapple syrup

A study of clarification of pineapple wastes syrup by a combined process of membrane ultrafiltration (UF), ion exchange and adsorption techniques using partially deacetylated chitin (PDC) as adsorbent material was conducted. Chitin from Black Tiger shrimp shell was used after undergoing deproteination, demineralisation and deacetylation with different concentrations of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The performance of cation resin (Dowex 88), anion resin (Dowex 66) and PDC as adsorbent material were evaluated. Effects of flow rate ranging from 10 to 50 ml min−1 on operation and regeneration of the resins were also investigated. Chitin yield was about 31·2% of the shrimp shells, corresponding to about 89% recovery of the total chitin content of the shells. When treated with 5%, 10%, 20% and 30% NaOH, the degree of deacetylation increased with increasing concentration of sodium hydroxide. In ion exchange process, cation resin removed more than 90% of K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ from UF mill juice at a flow rate of 30 ml min−1. In adsorption process, anion resin (Dowex 66) had more colorant removed (94% T) from UF mill juice than PDC treated with 30% NaOH (84·4% T). The optimum flow rate for cation resin was 10 ml min−1 for both operation and regeneration while for PDC, 30 ml min−1 was optimum for operation and 10 ml min−1 for regeneration. The concentrated pineapple syrup was clear with a colour value of 70·2% and pH value of 4·96. The main reducing sugars after concentration were glucose, fructose and sucrose at 29·05, 15·72 and 18·62% (w/v), respectively. © 1998 SCI.

Deacetylated chitin used as adsorbent in production of clarified pineapple syrup

A study of clarification of pineapple wastes syrup by a combined process of membrane ultrafiltration (UF), ion exchange and adsorption techniques using partially deacetylated chitin (PDC) as adsorbent material was conducted. Chitin from Black Tiger shrimp shell was used after undergoing deproteination, demineralisation and deacetylation with different concentrations of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The performance of cation resin (Dowex 88), anion resin (Dowex 66) and PDC as adsorbent material were evaluated. Effects of flow rate ranging from 10 to 50 ml min−1 on operation and regeneration of the resins were also investigated. Chitin yield was about 31·2% of the shrimp shells, corresponding to about 89% recovery of the total chitin content of the shells. When treated with 5%, 10%, 20% and 30% NaOH, the degree of deacetylation increased with increasing concentration of sodium hydroxide. In ion exchange process, cation resin removed more than 90% of K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ from UF mill juice at a flow rate of 30 ml min−1. In adsorption process, anion resin (Dowex 66) had more colorant removed (94% T) from UF mill juice than PDC treated with 30% NaOH (84·4% T). The optimum flow rate for cation resin was 10 ml min−1 for both operation and regeneration while for PDC, 30 ml min−1 was optimum for operation and 10 ml min−1 for regeneration. The concentrated pineapple syrup was clear with a colour value of 70·2% and pH value of 4·96. The main reducing sugars after concentration were glucose, fructose and sucrose at 29·05, 15·72 and 18·62% (w/v), respectively. © 1998 SCI.

Synthesis of Highly Substituted Butyryl Chitin in the Presence of Perchloric Acid

Perchloric acid was used as a catalyst for butyrylation of krill chitin. Esterification was carried out under heterogeneous conditions using a large excess of butyric anhydride at 20°C and 40°C. The effect of catalyst concentration and duration of the reaction on molecular weight and yield of butyryl chitin was investigated. Butyryl chitin with a degree of substitution of 2 in 90% yield were obtained. These butyryl chitins were soluble in various organic solvents and formed strong transparent films and fibers. The butyryl chitin also shows good resistance to gamma irradiation.

Chitinbestimmung in Claviceps

Summary Preparations rich in chitin obtained from the cell walls of ergot fungi were studied by X-ray diffraction and IR-techniques. During the course of fermentation the yield of chitin was determined using a modified procedure according to R ide and D rysdale (1972). A saprophytically ergotoxine producing Claviceps purpurea strain (Pepty 695) was found to contain 7—9 µ g glucosamine/mg dry weight of the mycelium in contrast to 3—5 µ g glucosamine/mg dry weight of a non-alkaloid producing C. purpurea strain (PUR 212). There was no remarkable fluctuation of the glucosamine content in strain Pepty 695 during the course of fermentation.