Chir Pine Forest Research Articles

Temporal variations in burn severity among various vegetation layers in subtropical Pinus Roxburghii (Chir Pine) forest of Hindu Kush mountain range

The Sub-tropical forests of Pinus roxburghii (chir pine) provide various ecosystem services and act as watershed for low lying regions. However, this species is prone to human induced fire primarily due to local communities' dependence for various resources exacerbated by the current dry conditions. The impact of fire across various vegetation layers and developmental stages has not been thoroughly studied. Bearing to this, the present study was conducted using composite burn index to assess the severity on various layers of vegetation and their long-term impact through a chronological approach. The impact of fire on 40 representative circular plots with a radius of 30 m, categorized into five forest strata: large and intermediate trees, seedlings/saplings, pole stage, shrubs, and soil were investigated and compared across four different time interval: unburnt (B0), burnt two years ago (B2), burnt five years ago (B5), and burnt 15 years ago (B15). The results were statistically proved using Kruskal–Wallis followed by Dunn's Post Hoc and Friedman test with the Holm correction in R Language. The study revealed significant variations in the average burn severity for each treatment, with shrubs having the highest average score of burn severity (average = 1.4) and soil showing the lowest (average = 0.408). The results of the Friedman test indicated non-uniform distribution of burn severity across different ecological treatments. This study is contributing significant insights into the effects of forest fires and their severity on different vegetation layers, which can be instrumental in devising and executing successful restoration strategies.

Unveiling the ecological alarm: People's perception towards exploring the impact of invasive plants on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Western Himalaya

This paper presents the insights from both an ecological and people's perception study, aimed at understanding the ecological status of selected two common Invasive Alien Plants species (IAPs), i.e., Ageratina adenophora (Sprengel) King & Robinson and Lantana camara L., and the perspectives of local communities towards their use, status, and influence on biodiversity and ecosystem services as well as controlling measures of these species. For the examination of the distribution and spread of these invasive species in the forests, a quadrat-based phytosociological assessment was conducted in the three dominant forest types [Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn f.), Chir-pine (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.), and Banj-oak (Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus)] of Uttarakhand State. However, to assess the perception and awareness of local communities towards these IAPs and their impacts on local biodiversity, ecosystem services, and processes, a questionnaire-based study was conducted in seven villages of the Nainital district, spanning three different vegetation zones: Sal, Chir-pine, and Banj-oak forests. Perception data were gathered from 112 households through questionnaire surveys and interviews with key informants such as teachers, elders, community leaders, and researchers. The results of the ecological assessment indicate that the mid-elevation zone, particularly the Chir-pine forest, is highly prone to species invasion. However, findings from the perception study reveal that the people are aware of these invasive species, and their negative impacts on human and animal health, native biodiversity, ecosystem services, and ecological processes. Interestingly, over the past decade, invasive alien plant species (IAPs) have interfered with forests in the study area, leading to a decline in native species. According to local perceptions, factors such as deforestation, forest fires, climate change, increased transportation, no use of species in daily life, and grazing have contributed significantly to the spread of these IAPs. However, some people use these species as fencing wood, firewood, and for composting, etc. The results of this study indicate that awareness and educational initiatives could play a crucial role in mitigating and managing invasion in the Himalayan region.

Impact of forest management on structure, composition, biomass and carbon stock in Chir-pine (P. roxburghii) forest, Western Himalaya

This study performs a comparative analysis of tree composition, biomass, and carbon stock across different management regimes namely, Van Panchayat forest (VP), Reserve forest (RF), and Civil & Soyam forest (C&SF) in the state of Uttarakhand, with a focus on P. roxburghii (Chir-pine) forests. Collectively, these management regimes cover approximately 60 % of the forest area in the state. In this assessment, a total five tree species (Pinus roxburghii, Quercus leucotrichophora, Myrica esculenta, Acacia catechu, and Pinus wallichiana) were identified across the management regimes. The Pinus roxburghii emerged as the dominant species across all management regimes, with relative density of 92.79, 94.39, and 92.31 % in Van Panchayat forest, Reserve forest, and Civil & Soyam forest respectively. However, co-dominant species are varying across the sites. The total tree biomass and carbon stock were notably higher in Van Panchayat forest (236.31 & 112.25 t ha−1) compared to Reserve forest (224.85 & 106.80 t ha−1) and Civil & Soyam forest (193.58 & 91.95 t ha−1). These findings suggest that Van Panchayat forests exhibit a superior status in terms of density, biomass, and carbon stock as compared to Reserve and Civil & Soyam forests. Pinus roxburghii emerges as a crucial species, underscoring its ecological significance in the region. These findings underscore the critical role of effective forest management practices in fostering sustainable biomass accumulation and carbon sequestration in the Himalayan Chir-pine forests. Thus, it helps to mitigate the impacts of climate change and biodiversity conservation, and sustainable management of forests.

Loss of carbon stock in the forests of Uttarakhand due to unprecedented seasonal forest fires

Unprecedented seasonal forest fires pose a significant threat to the carbon stocks of diverse ecosystems, particularly in regions like Uttarakhand, west Himalaya. Understanding the impact of varying fire frequencies on different forest types is crucial for effective conservation and management strategies. This study aims to assess the loss of carbon stock in three distinct forest types—Sal, Pine, and Mixed across an elevation gradient in Uttarakhand, facing unprecedented seasonal forest fires. By investigating pre- and post-fire conditions, analyzing biomass dynamics, and mapping fire frequencies, the research aims to provide insights into the complex interplay of fire regimes and forest resilience. The investigation covers vegetation analysis, biomass assessment, and fire frequency mapping. Biomass and carbon stock calculations were carried out using a non-destructive sampling method. Fire frequency maps were generated using Landsat satellite imagery spanning a decade, integrating MODIS hotspot data for classification. The study reveals distinct patterns in biomass changes across Sal, Pine, and Mixed forests in response to varying fire frequencies. Sal forests exhibit resilience to low-intensity fires, while Pine forests show higher sensitivity. Carbon stock contributions of dominant species varied significantly, with Sal and Chir-Pine forests emerging as crucial contributors. High fire frequencies lead to substantial carbon stock reduction in all forest types. The findings emphasize the sensitivity of aboveground biomass to fire frequency, with significant carbon stock loss observed in higher fire frequency classes. The study underscores the importance of nuanced conservation strategies tailored to distinct forest types and species characteristics. This research provides valuable insights for policymakers, forest managers, and conservationists in formulating targeted conservation and management approaches.

Temporal changes in species richness, composition and diversity of the forest stands over 36-year period, Western Himalaya, India

This study investigates the temporal changes in species richness, composition, and diversity in forest stands spanning a 36-year period in the Western Himalaya. Four forest stands (subtropical Sal-forest, subtropical Chir-pine forest, temperate Banj-oak forest, and temperate Mixed-oak Forest) studied in 1980–1981 were resurveyed using similar methods. Over the past 36 years, 19 new species have been recorded in the four stands; eight species planted and eleven species naturally introduced. Dominant species continue to dominate in the forest stands. However, their contribution to the total tree density has decreased over the year. Species diversity, richness, and evenness increased in all forests except the Sal stand. Three species were newly introduced in the Sal stand, seven in the Chir-pine stand, eight in the Banj-oak stand, and seven in the Mixed-oak stand. The highest similarity in species composition was observed in the Sal stand (59 %), followed by the mixed-oak stand (57 %), Chir-pine stand (50 %), and Banj-oak stand (47 %). The results indicate an increase in tree density across all sites, with the Mixed-oak forest exhibiting the highest increase in tree density due to least biotic pressure. The findings of this study, based on two-time composition datasets, provide valuable insights into forest dynamics, supporting biodiversity conservation and management planning.

Climate and humans interact to shape the fire regime of a chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest in eastern Bhutan

BackgroundChir pine (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) forests are distributed in the dry valleys of Bhutan Himalaya. In the past, these forests have been heavily influenced by human activities such as grazing, burning, resin tapping, and collection of non-timber forest products. Bhutan’s Forest Act of 1969, which shifted forest management from local community control to centralized governmental control, greatly restricted these activities. To understand the implications of the Forest Act on the chir pine forests, we used tree-rings and fire scars to reconstruct the fire history of a chir pine forest in eastern Bhutan. This provided an opportunity to characterize the fire regime before and after the Forest Act of 1969 was implemented and assess the scale and magnitude of changes that have occurred.ResultsWe developed a 120-year chir pine fire chronology from nine sites within a single forested landscape. Between 1900 and ~ 1970, fires were small and patchy. When fires occurred, they were limited to one to two sites within the larger study area. After 1970, there was a distinct shift in fire activity, with fires in 1985, 1989, 1996, 2000, and 2013 burning > 90% of sample plots. Fire activity was positively associated with La Niña conditions (wetter, cooler) in the preceding year. This is likely the result of increased accumulation and connectivity of fuels on the forest floor in wetter years. ConclusionsPrior to 1970, the fire regime in the studied chir pine landscape in eastern Bhutan was dominated by patchy, low-intensity fires indicating that the fire regime was fuel limited. After 1970, fires became larger and more frequent. This shift was associated with the enactment of the Bhutan Forest Act in 1969, which regulated grazing and implemented a policy of strict fire exclusion in government-reserved forests. This likely led to a large buildup of fuels, particularly after La Niña years. Historical patterns of grazing and low-intensity fires prior to the Forest Act kept fuel loads low and disconnected. The cessation of most human activities in these forests after 1969 resulted in an increase in fuel loads and connectivity within the landscape. This has greatly reshaped fire regimes in the chir pine forests of eastern Bhutan over the past half century.

Performance evaluation of individual tree detection and segmentation algorithms using ALS data in Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest

The application of individual tree detection algorithms for assessing forest inventories and aiding decision-making in forestry has been a subject of research for more than two decades. Nevertheless, there is a notable research gap in the development of robust algorithms capable of automatically detecting trees of different species, ages, and varied crown sizes in dense forest environments. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive evaluation of six different individual tree detection (ITD) algorithms using airborne LiDAR data in Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) forests. This research represents one of the pioneering efforts in applying ITD algorithms to Chir Pine forests using ALS data. We categorized ITD routines into two groups: those reliant on local maxima as treetops and initial seeds for crown delineation, and those that do not require explicit treetop identification. To assess accuracy, we developed a special Individual Tree Matching (ITM) algorithm, enabling the matching of LiDAR-detected trees with 284 reference trees measured in the field. Our analysis involved various combinations of filtering fixed window sizes and adaptive window sizes applied to the point cloud, unsmoothed, and smoothed canopy height model (CHM). Our results highlighted the effectiveness of the 3 × 3m fixed window size method on unsmoothed CHM, achieving an overall F-score of 0.65 and a tree detection rate of 86%. Additionally, the Dalponte 2016 method proved superior for crown segmentation using identified treetops, consistently measuring mean crown radii within 0.5 m of reference field trees. Among the methods not relying on treetops, the adaptive mean shift algorithm (AMS3D) delivered strong performance, boasting an overall F-score of 0.67 and mean crown radii within 0.1 m. Our study revealed a high correlation between LiDAR-detected tree heights and field-measured tree heights across all evaluated methods. Overall, our findings underscore the potential of ITD algorithms in enhancing forest attribute measurement accuracy and facilitating climate-responsive forest management strategies.

AGB estimation using Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-1 datasets.

Climate change is one of the greatest threats recently, of which developing countries are facing most of the brunt. In the fight against climate change, forests can play an important role, since they hold a substantial amount of terrestrial carbon and can therefore affect the global carbon cycle. Deforestation, however, is a significant challenge. There are financial incentives that can help in halting deforestation by compensating developing countries for their efforts. They require however assessments which makes it essential for developing countries to regularly monitor their stocking. Based on the aforementioned, forest carbon stock assessment was conducted in Margalla Hills National Park i.e., Sub-tropical Chir Pine Forest (SCPF) and Sub-tropical Broadleaved Evergreen Forest (SBEF), in Pakistan combining field inventory with a remote-sensing-based approach using machine learning algorithms. Circular plots of a 20m radius were used for recording the data and Sentinel-2 (S2) and Sentinel-1 (S1) satellite data were used for estimating the Aboveground Biomass (AGB). The performances of Random Forests (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) were explored. The AGB was higher for the SCPF. The RF performed better for SCPF, but SVM was better for SBEF. The free available satellite data in the form of S2 and S1 data offers an advantage for AGB estimations. The combination of S2 and S1 for future AGB studies in Pakistan is also recommended.

People's Perception and Awareness towards Plant Invasion, Its Impacts on Forest Ecosystem Services and Livelihood: A Tale of Central Himalayas.

Plant invasion is a leading threat to biodiversity, ecosystem services and human wellbeing worldwide. In the central Himalayas intentionally or accidentally introduced invasive alien plant species (IAPS) facilitate their own establishment and spread, which is altering forest structure, vegetation composition, species diversity and livelihood. To understand the perception and awareness amongst local communities about invasive alien and native plants and its effect on local livelihood, a questionnaire-based study was conducted in 10 villages of Nainital district, Uttarakhand, India. Household data of 179 respondents were triangulated with key informants such as community leaders, teachers and older people. A majority of the respondents were found to be more familiar with the native species (Berberis asiatica, Pyracantha crenulata and Rubus ellipticus) than IAPS (Ageratina adenophora and Lantana camara). Both the IAPS negative impacts on native biodiversity, ecosystem services and livelihood. During the last two decades IAPS have encroached on various forests and caused a decrease in native species in the study area. According to the local perception, deforestation, forest fire, climate change, increased transport, light weight seed, no use and grazing etc. have been the main factors behind the spread of IAPS. A. adenophora invaded both chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) and banj oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) forests while L. camara remained more prominent in low elevation open canopy chir pine forest. Uprooting is the primary method used to control IAPS in crop fields and forests. The studied villages have not reported awareness and education programs about the IAPS. Our study demonstrates the wide range of perspectives on the threat posed by IAPS to forest ecosystems and natural resources. Education could help to raise awareness about the issue and could be beneficial in managing and controlling invasion in the Himalayan region.

Decentralized Forest Governance and Resource Management: Assessing Community Dependence and Conservation Effectiveness in Broad-Leaved and Coniferous Forest Stands

Globally decentralized forest governance is being promoted to conserve and sustainably manage forest resources along with meeting local livelihoods. In the Central Himalayan region of India, it came into existence in 1931, long before the time when the concept of decentralized forest governance became popular globally, and the aim was to accomplish the subsistence needs of the smallholders in the region. This article discusses whether the species types (broadleaved and coniferous) affect biophysical conditions, species richness, and conservation effectiveness of community-owned forests (locally called Van Panchayat forests), and what could be done to improve their management in the near future. The findings are based on a household survey covering 16 villages as well as a biophysical assessment of 18 community forest stands (9 per forest type) covering an area of 1778 ha and 341 ha in both forest categories. It was found that farmers across the villages are intricately dependent on forest resources to support their livelihoods that are governed by a village institution (Van Panchayat) to maintain equity of benefit-sharing among all stakeholders. Both forest categories exhibited high dependence, however, there was a considerable difference in resource quality, viz. quality of fodder, fuel, and litter in broadleaved forests, therefore the community has more preference for such stands. The broadleaved Banj-oak stands revealed better biophysical status in terms of species diversity, tree density, total basal area, and regeneration than the coniferous Chir-pine stands. Although the local government has taken up selective policy initiatives to encourage decentralized forest governance, more needs to be done to strengthen it on the ground level, particularly in Chir-pine stands. It is suggested that the community management of forests needs to be improved in relation to leadership development, rationale use of bio-resources, and adopting site-specific management strategies. In areas with Chir-pine forests community need to be educated to reduce forest fire and promote the plantation of broad-leaved species. Also, the scope of community forests needs to be broadened by adopting and involving smallholders in various forest enterprise development and climate action programs. For this, developing proper alliances of village institutions with civil society groups and other partner institutions along with virtuous support from local government can lead to enhance social and environmental resilience of communities.

Impacts of wildfire on soil characteristics in subtropical Chir Pine forests of Murree, Pakistan

Wildfires are a natural component of forest ecosystem. These fires are a major cause of significant perturbations in the forest habitat due to temperature extremes and drought conditions particularly in summer. Wildfires occur frequently during summer in the subtropical Chir pine forests of Murree, Pakistan. These fires influence soil characteristics as well as tree-species growth and survival. The present study was thus conducted to investigate soil characteristics of wildfire-affected and non-affected areas. Four sites were selected based on wildfire incidents in the study area. Soil samples were collected from the fire-affected and adjacent non-affected areas. The collected soil samples were analyzed for physical and chemical characteristics using appropriate methods. The study showed that bulk density, moisture content, electrical conductivity, and soil nitrogen and soil carbon content declined in the burnt soil. However, soil pH, and phosphorus and potassium contents were higher in the burnt soils than those in the non-burnt soils. Generally, low intensity forest fire (surface fire) is an important component of forest ecosystem and it enhances natural regeneration as well as soil fertility. It is suggested that government forest departments should take into account burn severity while developing hazard reduction and restoration strategies of wildfire affected areas.

Economic valuation of selected ecosystem services in Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT), Pakistan.

Payment for ecosystem services (PES) is a mechanism where a consumer is able and ready to pay for the protection of the precise ecosystem service and there must be a provider such as local societies receiving an economic resource, who in return, must have the ability to maintain that ecosystem service. Economic valuation provides basis for payment for ecosystem services. Therefore, objective of this study was to evaluate tourism and carbon stock services of the Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT), Pakistan. Two forest zones (Chirpine and Scrub) of Islamabad capital territory (ICT) were selected for estimation of carbon stock and their carbon credits and carbon worth, a questionnaire-based survey was conducted for tourism as a payment for ecosystem services. The method for carbon stock assessment was systematic sampling for Chirpine forest whereas random sampling was done for scrub forest. The size of sampling plot was 17.84 m radius, and a total of 93 plots (49 Scrub zone and 44 Chirpine zone) was taken in the study area. The carbon stock of both zones (Chirpine and Scrub zone) is 22556.75 ton/ha (Chirpine 20105.79, Scrub 2450.96) and total carbon dioxide sequestered by both zone is 82557.72 ton/ha (Chirpine 73587.2, Scrub 8970.52), total carbon credits of both zone is 302160.87 (Chirpine 269328.97, Scrub 32831.9) and the carbon worth of both Chirpine and scrub zone is 4532418.92 $ (Chirpine 4039937.09$, Scrub 492481.83$). Similarly, from tourism point of view, in Shakar Parian, 94% tourists were agreed for PES whereas 6% were disagreed for the PES (the 6% tourist were disagreed to contribute for PES, 40% were agreed for Rs.5 contribution and 54% for Rs.10.). moreover, in Lake view Park, 97% tourists were agreed and 3% are disagreed (In Lake View Park 5% tourists were disagreed for the PES contribution whereas 32% were agreed for Rs.5 and 63% were for Rs.10). In Damen e Koh, around 87% tourist were agreed and 13% were disagreed, (24% were agreed for the contribution of Rs.5 and 63% tourists were agreed for the contribution of Rs.10). In Marghazar Zoo, 93% tourists were agreed (22% were agreed for contribution of Rs.5 and 71% tourist were agreed for contribution of Rs.10) and 7% are disagreed for PES whereas 7% tourists were not agreed for contribution. PES may implement to compensate forest and parks manager to ensure better management of the forests and parks. Due to prime location and scenic beauty of the ICT, it has huge potential for implementation of PES mechanism for sustainable forest management and conservation. Therefore, it is recommended that Capital Development Authority (CDA) Islamabad should devise a plan for implementation of PES in forests and parks of ICT for its sustainable management of recreational and forest resources.

NATURAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE DENSITY OF REGENERATION IN SUBTROPICAL CHIR PINE FOREST OF MALAKAND REGION, KHYBER-PAKHTUNKHWA, PAKISTAN

Chir pine botanically called Pinus roxburghii of family Pinaceae, found in sub-tropical chir pine zone providing valuable services to the locals. The anthropogenic disturbances in sub-tropical Chir pine forest are mostly affecting natural regeneration in coniferous forest of Pakistan. However, natural factors like slope, aspect, elevation, sunshade etc. also responsible for low density of natural regeneration in these forests. Therefore, we formulated a study to investigate the effect of slope and aspect on natural regeneration of chir pine forest in Malakand region in Khyber Pakhutnkhwah. Regeneration was studied on three different slopes (steep slopes of 27° and above, the moderate slope of 18- 27° and gentle slope 18° and below and northern and southern aspect. A total of 45 random samples were thoroughly studied in the form of circular plots of radius 8.4 meters, 15 from each category of slope in each study area. Similarly, 20 plots on southern and 20 northern aspect were also selected randlomly in each study area. Analsysis was carried out through two way analysis of variance for slopes and two sample independent t- test for aspect through SPSS and significance difference among slope was determined through tukey test. The result showed that moderate slope and southern aspect was the best for optimum natural regeneration. The less number of regeneration on gentle slope corresponds to heavy anthropogenic activities, grazing pressure and inadequate mother trees. The study recommend to focus efforts of regeneration protectoin mainly on moderate slope, prohibit individuals from collecting seeds, and raise public understanding of natural regeneration.

Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data

Abstract Forests offer high potential for the fight against climate change. However, forests are faced with increased deforestation. REDD+ is a financial mechanism that offers hope to developing countries for tackling deforestation. Aboveground (AGB) estimation, however, is necessary for such financial mechanisms. Remote sensing methods offer various advantages for AGB estimation. A study, therefore, was conducted for the estimation of AGB using a combination of remote sensing Sentinel-1 (S1) and Sentinel-2 (S2) satellite data and field inventorying. The mean AGB for Sub-tropical Chir Pine Forest was recorded as 146.73 ± 65.11 Mg ha−1, while for Sub-tropical Broadleaved Evergreen Forest it was 33.77 ± 51.63 Mg ha−1. Results revealed weak associations between the S1 and S2 data with the AGB. Nonetheless, S1 and S2 offer advantages such as free data resources that can be utilized by developing countries for forest biomass and carbon monitoring.

Effect of forest fire on tree diversity and regeneration in the forests of Uttarakhand, Western Himalaya, India

The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of forest fires on tree diversity and their regeneration in three fire-prone forests of Uttarakhand, India. We used Landsat 5, 7, and 8 satellite imagery to prepare fire frequency maps and the study area was divided into four fire frequency classes. Ten plots were marked in each fire frequency class to assess diversity and regeneration pattern of tree species. A total of 14 tree species belonging to 14 genera and 13 families were sampled during the study period. We found that tree species diversity was higher in areas with low fire frequencies in comparison to the areas with no fire frequency class. We also observed that regeneration of tree species varied significantly across all fire frequency classes and forest types, with increasing dominance of certain fire-tolerant species in areas with frequent fires. Of the 33,678 individuals (tree, sapling, and seedling) recorded in all the fire frequency classes, 12,630 were in Sal Forest, 8,033 were in Chir-pine Forest, and 13,015 were in Mixed Forest. The study suggests that if forest fire incidences continue at current levels, the forests could experience a decline in tree diversity. Although forest fire is a natural occurrence in many ecosystems, the increasing frequency and intensity of fires due to human activities such as land-use change and climate change have disrupted the natural fire regime.

Chir pine forest and pre-monsoon drought determine spatial, and temporal patterns of forest fires in Uttarakhand Himalaya.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42965-023-00306-9.

Comparative study of forest biomass and carbon stocks of Margalla Hills National Park, Pakistan

Forests can play an important role in climate change mitigation. However, limited information is available worldwide regarding forest carbon and biomass stocks. Financial mechanisms such as ‘reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation of forest carbon, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks’ (REDD+) also emphasize the quantification of forest biomass and carbon. This study aimed to estimate the forest biomass in two forests of Margalla Hills National Park (MHNP): Sub-tropical Chir Pine Forest (SCPF) and Sub-tropical Broadleaved Evergreen Forest (SBEF). For this, circular sampling plots of a 20 m radius were used for the collection of the variables, “diameter at breast height (DBH) and height”. Statistical analysis was done for exploring regression relationships between the variables. We found a mean Aboveground Carbon (AGC) of 73.36 ± 32.55 Mg C ha−1 in SCPF and a mean AGC of 16.88 ± 25.81 Mg C ha−1 in SBEF. The mean Aboveground Biomass (AGB) for SCPF was recorded as 146.73 ± 65.11 Mg ha−1, while for SBEF it was 33.77 ± 51.63 Mg ha−1. It was therefore concluded that the SCPF had higher mean AGB and mean AGC than the SBEF. Similar differences were also noticed in the structural characteristics of the two forests. These could be valuable information while designing sustainable management plans and afforestation programmes for the future and also for accessing nature-based funding such as REDD+.

Assessment of population, habitat, and threats to Cycas pectinata Buch.-Ham. (Cycadaceae), a vulnerable cycad in Bhutan

Cycas pectinata Buch.-Ham. is an ancient gymnosperm that is now confined to pockets of habitats in the Indian subcontinent but was once widely distributed. Its decline is attributable to habitat loss, and has reached the point where C. pectinata is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ in the IUCN Red List. C. pectinata is the only species of Cycas found in Bhutan, and in this biodiversity-rich area it is present as a relic of great scientific and conservation value because of its rarity and long evolutionary history. Although it is well known in India, it has not been studied in detail in Bhutan. This study assessed populations and threats to C. pectinata in two places in Bhutan. Field visits were made to document the distribution, habitats, and associated threats to the populations. Plants were observed growing in steep rugged terrain in the open Chir Pine forest. Populations are significantly threatened due to human activities such as habitat destruction and over collection as ornamental plant. Possible expansion of populations is naturally threatened by low seed production and by predators.

Biodiversity of butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) in the protected landscape of Nandhour, Uttarakhand, India

An appraisal of butterfly species composition in terms of comparative diversity richness in various habitat types was conducted in and around the Nandhour Wildlife Sanctuary of Terai Arc landscape in Uttarakhand. During the two years of survey period (March 2018–February 2020), a total of 89 species of butterflies belonging to families Nymphalidae 43 species, Pieridae 15 species, Lycaenidae 13 species, Hesperiidae eight species, Papilionidae seven species, and Riodinidae three species were recorded, of which 46 species represented new records for the Nandhour Landscape. Butterfly diversity and richness were highest in dense moist & open dry riverine forests and lowest in human settlements & agricultural land. No significant differences in the number of species were found in moist mixed deciduous forest, subtropical Chir Pine forest, moist Bhabar Sal forest, moist Shiwalik Sal forest, and plantation forest. Eight species are endemic to the Indian Himalayan Region.

Seasonal dynamics of soil and microbial respiration in the banj oak and chir pine forest of the central Himalaya, India

This research investigates seasonal changes of root respiration (Rroot), total soil respiration (Rtotal) and microbial respiration (Rmicrobial) in three central Himalayan forest types: banj oak (BO), chir pine (CP) and banj oak regenerated (BOR). The trenching method is used to separate Rroot from Rtotal. Soil physicochemical and biological properties were compared among the forest type and seasons using one-way ANOVA. Results indicated the significant (p < 0.05) influence of forest type and season on Rtotal, Rroot and Rmicrobial. BO forest had significantly (p < 0.05) higher Rtotal than the CP forest. This was attributed to lower bulk density (BD), pH and high soil moisture, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN) and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) in the BO forest. Higher soil moisture, SOC, TN and MBC in BO reflects higher microbial metabolic activity than the CP, with low soil moisture and nutrient content. The Rroot/Rtotal ratio ranged from 35 to 62 % for BO, 12 to 58 % for CP and 14 to 45 % for BOR, indicating that Rroot was an important contributor to Rtotal. The contribution of Rroot was at a maximum in the rainy season (53 %) and a minimum in the winter season (11 %), indicating the synergistic effect of optimum soil micro-climatic conditions and soil nutrient content to Rroot. In an exponential regression analysis, soil temperature better explained Rtotal (r2 = 0.81–0.82, p < 0.001). In comparison to Rmicrobial (r2 = 0.58–0.85, p < 0.001), Rroot is better explained by soil moisture (r2 = 0.59–0.88, p < 0.001) in a linear regression model. Present findings suggest that the positive effect of temperature, moisture and litter nitrogen on Rtotal are majorly regulated by forest types, which potentially increases the understanding of climate change and nutrient dynamic processes on a global scale.