Chinese Language Programs Research Articles

Heritage language education in the United States: A national survey of college‐level Chinese language programs

AbstractThis study reports the results of a national survey of Chinese as a heritage language (CHL) education in U.S. colleges and universities. Conducted during a period of 13 months, the project included an initial survey that elicited general information such as program structure, course offerings, and materials. Of the 619 institutions to which the survey was sent, 246 responses were received, of which 51 institutions were identified as offering CHL courses. A follow‐up survey of heritage‐track instructors at the 51 institutions investigated their views on existing teaching materials, challenges, successful experiences, and needs for professional development. In addition to providing a general picture of college‐level CHL education across the United States, this article also identifies urgent issues that need to be addressed for CHL education and discusses the implications for teaching CHL learners in particular and heritage language learners in general.

Mixed-methods needs analysis of a Chinese language program

AbstractWith the aim of improving a Chinese language program by incorporating defensible curricula, this study surveyed 213 stakeholders to arrive at a panoramic profile of the program’s needs. A mixed-methods research design with multiple types of data triangulation was employed to achieve a balanced quantitative and qualitative exploration of these needs. To redress a lack of comprehensive studies of Chinese learning needs in higher education, this study investigated: (a) program components that were perceived differently by students and teachers; (b) whether, how, and why lower-level learners diverged from upper-level ones with regard to communicative skills and instructional-approach preferences; and (c) any possible insights for program improvement from both micro- and macro- perspectives. In addition to discussing this study’s reliability and validity, the researchers offer recommendations for potential program restructuring and for Chinese language instruction more generally. The paper concludes with implications for future studies, and how its findings might be utilized for program sustainability and improvement.

Integrating National Standards in the curricular development, implementation, and student outcomes of a post-secondary Chinese language program

Abstract This paper chronicles the development of a post-secondary Chinese program after the establishment of the Language Center at Stanford University in 1995. It outlines a continuous process of curriculum development aiming to be consistent with the National Standards for Foreign Language Learning (ACTFL, 2006) and World-Readiness Standards for Learning Languages (ACTFL, 2014). It also describes assessment programs implemented to obtain data on students’ oral and writing proficiency levels at the end of 150 hours of instruction (completion of first-year Chinese) and at the end of 300 hours of instruction (completion of second-year Chinese). Because Chinese is a non-cognate language to English, students’ achieving ACTFL proficiency levels of Intermediate Low in oral and writing proficiency at the end of their first year and achieving Intermediate Mid and higher at the end of their second year indicates the program’s successful curricular design and implementation. This paper outlines the main factors contributing to this success.

The Analysis of Needs on Learning Materials in Context-Based Reading Mandarin Languages and Culture

<p>A research and development of teaching materials will focus on the development of the textbook that suit the needs of students, lecturers, and also the majors. The knowledge of culture and literature that has been studied in Chinese Language and Culture study program of Darma Persada University is not maximum and suitable for the students’ needs. So to adjust to the needs of these students, the making of teaching materials in this study will use the contextual based theme of Chinese literature and culture. The literature and cultural themes used in this study consists different types of traditional Chinese folklore. The methodology used in this study refers to Hutchinson and Waters theory that includes the analysis of the needs of students and teachers. The data collections are conducted using questionnaire in the 5<sup>th</sup> of Chinese Language and Culture Faculty of Darma Persada University which consist of 18 students and 3 lecturers in reading class. The data analysis used in this study is quantitative. This research resulted that the use of appropriate teaching materials and in accordance with the needs of students will result in more effective learning, better learning outcomes, and a positive response on student attitudes. The material for reading the context-based Mandarin literary works and culture resulting from this development research has also encouraged the students to be more active during the teaching and learning process.</p>

Students' perception of Quizlet as a Chinese learning tool: a preliminary study

Since its depute in 2010, the Quizlet has grown to become a popular multi-purpose language learning tool. The purpose of the study was to examine the perception of the Quizlet as a tool to learn Chinese. Participants were seventh grade (n = 15) and eighth grade (n = 17) students enrolled in the Chinese language programs of a middle school. The measuring instrument consisted of 18 items. Item respond was based on a 5-point Likert-type scale. The Cronbach's alpha of the questionnaire was 0.913, indicating its high internal consistency. Results of the one-sample t-tests showed that there were three significant items among each of the seventh and eighth graders. Overall, students are reluctant to use the Quizlet every day or use it at home. The students also do not like the printed Quizlet and paper flashcards. Nevertheless, future studies should include a larger sample and compare the effectiveness of different language learning software.

Diversities and motivations of Chinese L2 learners

AbstractIn the face of significant growth in student enrolments in Modern Chinese language programs at tertiary educational institutions in Australia, the ongoing Chinese language curriculum is facing challenges as to how to cater best for a corpus of students with various language backgrounds and motivations. This study aims to make contribution to the field of Chinese language education by examining how the students’ linguistic/cultural backgrounds and motivations have impacted on their learning of this language in Australian universities. This study examines the interrelationship between language background, motivation, language learning practice and academic achievement of newly-enrolled students in a modern Chinese language program with a view to creating a well-informed curriculum so as to further improve the students’ Chinese language proficiency. The primary data of this study consist of a questionnaire survey of 168 newly enrolled students and observation of first year classes in a modern Chinese language program at a leading university in Australia. While reaffirming that students’ linguistic backgrounds can make a significant impact on their language learning experience, motivations and academic results, this study finds that the closer the relation between the students’ cultural and linguistic background and the Chinese language, the easier it is for the students to learn the language. On the other hand, this situation can also lead to students’ high self-efficacy belief, which can be detrimental to their actual learning experience. Further, the study indicates that the students’ interest in Chinese language and culture as an intrinsic motivation greatly enhances their learning experience.

English and international students in China today

China has since 2000 started marketing itself as a hub for international education, and there has been a push by the government to attract a large number of foreign students to the country's universities. Sharma (2011) reported that there were around 260,000 foreign students studying in China's universities, and that the aim of the Ministry of Education was to attract around 500,000 foreign students by 2020. However, as China is a so-called ‘emerging destination’ for foreign students, perhaps not surprisingly, the vast majority - around two-thirds - of its foreign student population is currently from the Asia region (Study in China, 2012). Although the largest number of foreign students in China study Chinese language programs, an increasing number are attracted by such programs as engineering and medicine. These courses are also being promoted as English-medium programs, with whole degree programs offered from undergraduate to postgraduate levels in English. Little research has been carried out on how these programs are being conducted, the reception of these programs by foreign students in China, and the impact this is having on China's universities. The attraction of international students to China's higher education institutions would no doubt alter the dynamics of language use on these university campuses. This article reports on the reception and use of English by foreign university students in one such international degree program: international undergraduate students studying for a degree in Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) in the School of Medicine of one of China's leading universities. This case study provides an example of how English-medium instruction programs are currently being used to attract foreign students to China's universities, partly in order for these universities to promote themselves as ‘international’ institutions (see also Botha, 2014; and Bolton and Botha, 2015).

Ambiguous States: Confucius Institutes and Chinese Soft Power in the U.S. Classroom

This article offers an ethnographic examination of representations and perceptions of the Chinese state as manifest through Confucius Institutes in the United States. Confucius Institutes are Chinese language and culture programs that are funded and staffed by the Chinese government. Confucius Institutes are a constituent part of China's soft power policy efforts to communicate to the world that its cultural tradition stresses harmony and that its rise to power will be a peaceful and globally responsible process. Through analyzing parent and student perceptions of “the state” through their experiences with Confucius Institute teachers and pedagogical materials, it is possible to contextualize and problematize the means through which Cold War rhetoric is recast and recirculated in the contemporary “post‐Cold War” historical moment, thus interrogating assumptions about essentialized Chinese difference. This research reveals how understandings of a newly empowered China cast the nation as a threat to U.S. economic and political power in a manner that negates China's soft power efforts, dislocating policy intention and effect. At the same time, this research suggests that as Confucius Institute teachers distance themselves from perceptions of an authoritarian state, parents and students begin to disaggregate perceptions of a monolithic Chinese state in a manner that reinforces the state's soft power goals.

The Sage as Strategy: Nodes, Networks, and the Quest for Geopolitical Power in the Confucius Institute

China's “Confucius Institute” (CI) project, which has sought to establish Chinese language programs around the world, has been widely criticized as strengthening China's geopolitical influence. This essay will examine the impact of the CI project by drawing upon Castells's theory of cultural nodes, which explores the power dynamics between and among nations in a global, technologically oriented society. Specifically, the essay will argue that the Confucius Institute project's greatest impact lies not as a propaganda device, but rather in the attempt to develop a network of “Confucian nodes,” or sites of symbolic Chinese cultural capital, to enhance the geopolitical influence of China.

A needs analysis for Chinese language teaching at a university in the United States

This paper presents the results of a one-year language curriculum needs analysis project aimed at developing a deeper understanding of the learning needs of first and second year Chinese language students at a university in the United States. The purpose of this project was to provide a foundation for further curriculum development of the university's Chinese language program by assessing student learning needs within the first and second year courses as perceived by the students and their teachers. The data for this project were collected through anonymous questionnaires distributed to teachers and students, personal interviews with the university's Chinese language teachers and first/second year students, and classroom observations conducted by the researcher. Through a quantitative analysis of the collected data, this paper focuses on the perceived needs of the students, and gives special attention to the differences in perceptions between students and teachers regarding these needs. This needs analysis project aimed to provide an example for other researchers and institutions in developing language curricula, particularly in the context of Chinese language studies.

Investigating Students' Needs in a Chinese Language Program

This study investigates students' needs in a Chinese language program from a university in Utah, the United States. The present study had two aims. First, the study attempted to find students' necessities, lacks, and wants. Second, the study tried to determine to what extent the students' perceived needs differ from the teachers' views and the learning objectives posted by the department. The study results showed that the students rated speaking and listening skills as highly important. Moreover, the skill the students lacked most was grammar. Additionally, the students desired to take conversation and business courses most. Finally, this study found that the students, the teachers, and the department learning objectives only partially agreed with each other. Based on these findings, implications were given and teaching suggestions were recommended.

Estimating the Prevalence of Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection—New York City, 2008

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a preventable cause of liver failure, cirrhosis, and liver cancer; estimated chronic HBV infection prevalence is 0.3-0.5% in the U.S.A. Prevalence in New York City (NYC) is likely higher because foreign-born persons, who represent 36% of NYC's population versus 11% nationwide, bear a disproportionate burden of chronic HBV infection. However, because no comprehensive, population-based survey of chronic HBV infection has been conducted in NYC, a reliable prevalence estimate is unavailable. We used two approaches to estimate chronic HBV infection prevalence in NYC: (1) a census-based estimate, combining local and national prevalence data for specific populations, and (2) a surveillance-based estimate, using data from NYC's Department of Health and Mental Hygiene Hepatitis B Surveillance Registry and adjusting for out-migration and deaths. Results from both the census-based estimate and the surveillance-based estimate were similar, with an estimated prevalence of chronic HBV in NYC of 1.2%. This estimate is two to four times the estimated prevalence for the U.S.A. as a whole. According to the census-based estimate, >93% of all cases in NYC are among persons who are foreign-born, and approximately half of those are among persons born in China. These findings underscore the importance of local data for tailoring programmatic efforts to specific foreign-born populations in NYC. In particular, Chinese-language programs and health education materials are critical. Reliable estimates are important for policymakers in local jurisdictions to better understand their own population's needs and can help target primary care services, prevention materials, and education.

Understanding the nature of performance

While Chinese language learning in Australian schools is characterised by predominantly second language programs for learners who have had no prior exposure to the target language, there is increasing participation by Australian-born children who speak Putonghua (Mandarin) or another dialect at home. Curriculum and assessment frameworks and syllabuses at senior secondary level have responded to the diversity in learner background through the provision of separate curricula and assessment schemes for different learner groups based on country of birth, prior educational experience and languages used at home. However the impact of learner background on learning and achievement as learners progress through Chinese language programs both in primary and secondary school remains under-researched. In particular, evidence of how the performance of second language learners differs from that of learners who a) speak the language at home and b) may have substantial community schooling experience beyond the school classroom, or c) were born and initially educated in Chinese, is very limited. This paper reports on the results of the Student Achievement in Asian Languages Education (SAALE) Project (Scarino et al., 2011; Scarino, this issue and Elder, Kim & Knoch, this issue) with regard to student achievement in Chinese. It focuses on the writing performance of Year 10 learners of Chinese and considers specifically the impact of language background by comparing performances between Australian-born students who do and do not speak Chinese at home. Scores assigned to students’ writing gathered on common test procedures confirms the expectation that background language learners perform at significantly higher levels and suggests that the two groups also differ in the nature of that performance. The implications of this data for the teaching, learning and assessment of Chinese in schools, and for the appropriate provision of programs for these different groups of learners is discussed.

New patterns in higher education cross-cultural learning: The case of a postgraduate english instruction program in China

This paper explores new patterns of learning across cultures in higher education through a case study of a cohort of international graduate students at a university in Chinese mainland. North University (NU) has hosted international students in its Chinese language and culture programs for decades. However, between 2008 and 2010, a new Master’s degree program for international students was established. This attracted 75 graduate students from different disciplinary backgrounds, from 21 developing countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. English is the common language to both students and faculty, but a foreign language to all. This program marks a significant shift for China’s higher education as it reaches out to the world. The paper describes this cohort’s lived experiences in China, including academic, linguistic and sociocultural learning. It analyzes the challenges such programs pose for the Chinese higher education system, explores how these challenges have become opportunities for growth and how barriers have been overcome. It also discusses the implications of this case for the upgrading of higher education quality in China.

Learning a Tonal Language by Attending to the Tone: An In Vivo Experiment

Learning the Chinese tone system is a major challenge to students of Chinese as a second or foreign language. Part of the problem is that the spoken Chinese syllable presents a complex perceptual input that overlaps tone with segments. This complexity can be addressed through directing attention to the critical features of a component (tone in this case) within a complex perceptual input stimulus. We tested hypotheses based on this feature‐focusing assumption in an in vivo classroom setting. First‐year students in a Chinese language program at a U.S. university were trained to identify the tones of 228 syllables learned across eight lessons in the first semester. Three learning conditions were designed to support tone learning by presenting (a) visual pitch contours that depict the acoustic shape of the tones, together with pinyin spelling of the spoken syllables (Contour + Pinyin condition); (b) numbers that represent the tones in traditional computer interface, together with pinyin spelling of the spoken syllables (Number + Pinyin condition); and (c) visual pitch contours without pinyin spelling (Contour Only condition). Analyses of student activity logs (learning curves) and pretests and posttests showed significant effects of learning condition. The results suggested that the Contour + Pinyin condition had more error reduction in tone recognition over the activity log than the Contour Only condition and greater improvement from the pretest to posttest than the Number + Pinyin condition. These findings point at the value of separate support for the two major components (tone and segments) of a tonal language.

On the Crisis of University Literature Education and Its Reasons: A Case Study of Chinese Language & Literature Program

We had an investigation to the students of Chinese language & literature program of 5 universities in 2009, and found finally that the current situation of literature education was troubling. Students' practical psychology is serious. Many teachers are unable to deal with the contradictions of teaching and scientific research. Students do not pay close attention to current literary. In the present educational reform, literature education has failed to keep up with the paces of the reform. Visual culture has caused the enormous impact on students' accepting literature. We, the teachers are engaged in literature education, must reply with the positive psychology in the face of this kind of situation.

World-Smart Students

world in which today's students will graduate is far different than the world in which we grew up. As never before, American education must prepare students for a world where the opportunities for success require the ability to compete and cooperate on a global scale. globalization of economies, the rise of China and India, advances in science and communications technology, acceleration of international migration--and the fact that virtually every major health, environmental, and human security challenge Americans face can be solved only through international collaboration--will require our high school graduates to be far more knowledgeable about world regions, cultures, and global issues. (1) But we have not emphasized such skills in our schools. A 2007 report from the National Academy of Sciences warns, The pervasive lack of knowledge of foreign cultures and languages threatens the security of the United States and as well its ability to compete in the global marketplace and produce an informed citizenry. (2) INNOVATIONS IN SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITIES Over the past few years, schools and communities across the country have begun to respond to this new reality and are seeking to redesign education to produce students who are both college ready and globally competent. Consider this example: Walter Payton College Preparatory High School in Chicago, an inner-city magnet school that is one of Chicago's most ethnically diverse schools, has shown how integrating global content enhances academic excellence. Founded in 2000 and now one of the top schools in Illinois, the school's mission is to prepare students for leadership in their community, the nation, and the Every student studies a world language for four years and experiences a home-stay exchange with a sister school in China, France, north Africa, Japan, Switzerland, Chile, Italy, or South Africa. Use of technology, including videoconferencing, connects Payton classrooms to their sister schools and to subject-matter experts around the world. An array of international visitors, students, and seminars further develops the international spirit of the school. school is also the flagship of Chicago's Chinese language program, the largest Chinese program in the country. This school, one of the winners of the Goldman Sachs Prizes for Excellence in Education, run by the Asia Society, is clearly an outstanding school. But data collected on hundreds of schools that have applied for the prize--from more than 40 states and from rural and inner-city areas, as well as suburban and private schools--show that many schools are embarking on similar journeys. Our research shows that schools typically start in a small way and gradually broaden their approaches. Over time, globally oriented schools develop key common elements. These schools: * Create a global vision and culture by revising their mission statements and graduate profiles and creating a school culture that supports internationally focused teaching and learning; * Develop an internationally oriented faculty by recruiting teachers with international interests and encouraging teachers to take advantage of the many professional development and study/travel opportunities offered through universities and international organizations; * Integrate international content into all curriculum areas, bringing a global dimension to science and language arts, as well as social studies and languages; * Emphasize the learning of world languages, including less commonly taught languages, such as Chinese and Arabic; * Expand student experiences through internationally oriented service learning, internships, and partnerships and exchanges with schools in other countries; and * Harness technology to tap global information sources, create international collaborations, and offer international courses and languages online, especially to underserved communities. …

Building Societal Capital: Chinese in the US

Since the late 1980s, closely following the economic boom of the four tigers of Asia (Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Korea) Chinese language programs have begun to take a foothold in the educational system of the US (Rhodes and Lucinda, 1997; Welles, ADFL Bulletin 35 (2004) 2). The rapid rise of the PRC as an emerging superpower in the past decade commands unprecedented attention from the international communities (World Bank (2002). Globalization, Growth, and Poverty: A World Bank Policy Research Report. Oxford University Press; Friedman (2005) The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century. NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux). This desire to establish Chinese programs is clearly demonstrated from a 2004 College Board survey, in which 2,400 US high schools indicated that they would be interested in offering Chinese programs that lead students to take the Advanced Placement Course and Examination for college credits (College Board (2004) http://www.collegeboard.com/press/article/0,,51453,00.html). While the survey reveals a fascination with Chinese which presents an opportunity for future expansion, the inadequacy of the entire Chinese language teaching field in the U.S. in responding to this demand is simultaneously exposed. This article analyzes the Chinese case specifically from the perspective of the presence of HL speakers and links between the HL reality of Chinese and the demand for Chinese as a foreign language. The outlines of a new paradigm for language planning in the US using the Chinese case emerge from this discussion.

A Model of Formative Task-Based Language Assessment for Chinese as a Foreign Language

This article presents a model of formative task-based language assessment implemented in the Chinese language program at the University of Iowa. The model was conceptualized from both empirical evidence, namely previous research done by other team members and me, and assessment theory, namely task-based learning and testing. Our formative performance assessment tests tend to be criterion-referenced and are designed to assess how much of the content of the course or program is being learned, thereby providing links to the course objectives and program goals. Other features of our formative task-based language testing include (a) componential and analytic scoring, (b) skills integration, and (c) derivation from classroom activities. Numerous examples covering various skills are provided.

Parents' Attitudes Toward Chinese–English Bilingual Education and Chinese-Language Use

This study surveyed 86 parents who enrolled their children in a Chinese–English bilingual preschool in San Francisco. The participants were asked their opinions on bilingual education, the reasons for sending their children to a Chinese–English bilingual school, their attitudes toward bilingual education, their use of Chinese and English, and their expectations for their children and the language environment at home. It was found that parents strongly support Chinese–English bilingual education and understood the purpose and underlying principles of bilingual education. Although there were some differences between the English-dominant and Chinese-dominant parents' responses, the major reasons parents enrolled their children in Chinese–English bilingual school were the practical advantages of being bilingual (e.g., better career opportunities), positive effects on self-image, and development of skills enabling effective communication within the Chinese-speaking community. The majority of the parents intended to encourage their children to speak Chinese at home. However, a gap existed between expectation and actual practice. Parents' expectation of their children's level of Chinese competency varied due to differences in parents' Chinese proficiency and the availability of Chinese resources at home. The results suggest that both Englishdominant and Chinese-dominant parents are very supportive of developing bilingualism in their children. The implications of this study for community Chinese heritage language programs and for Chinese–English bilingual schools are that schools need to work in concert with parents to establish more effective