Chinese Dwellings Research Articles

Research on the architectural decoration of traditional Chinese vernacular dwellings

ABSTRACTThe Yangtze River and the Yellow River are located in the south and north of China respectively. They are considered the two sources of Chinese civilization. For thousands of years, the cultures of the two river basins have merged, thus forming the five thousand years of Chinese civilization. Despite this long integration, the two cultures have maintained their distinct personality. Vernacular dwellings are no exception. This paper researches the architectural decoration of traditional vernacular dwellings in these two basins. After field investigations, a total of 308 examples of traditional vernacular dwellings have been selected from the two regions. 186 examples are located in the Yangtze River basin and 122 examples in the Yellow River basin. The architectural decoration of these traditional vernacular dwellings is examined from the aspects of brick carvings, wood carvings, stone carvings, oil paintings and colour paintings. The focus of this study is the identification of decorative variances in the architectural decoration of these traditional vernacular dwellings due to regional influences. Attempts were made to ascertain the reasons for these differences, in terms of geography, climate, politics, technology and folk customs.

Personal exposure to PM2.5-bound organic species from domestic solid fuel combustion in rural Guanzhong Basin, China: Characteristics and health implication

Domestic solid fuels combustion produces a mass of fine particulate matter (PM2.5). PM2.5-bound organics, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), oxygenated-PAHs (OPAHs), phthalate esters (PAEs) and hopanes, were quantified in indoor, outdoor and personal exposure samples collected in rural Guanzhong Basin, China. The average concentration of total quantified PAHs in personal exposure samples was 310 ± 443 ng m−3, 1.5 times of those of indoor (211 ± 120 ng m−3) and outdoor (189 ± 115 ng m−3). Similar observations were found for the OPAHs and PAEs, i.e., much higher concentrations were seen in personal exposure samples. Hopanes average personal exposure concentration (13 ± 9.7 ng m−3) was comparable to indoors (15 ± 9.7 ng m−3) and outdoors (13 ± 9.6 ng m−3). Among four common heating ways applied in Chinese dwelling, the highest exposure levels to PAHs, OPAHs and PAEs were found for indoor coal chunks stoves. Concentration under electric power was 1.2–4.5 folds lower than those with solid fuels in this study, proved to be the cleanest energy for the household heating. The exposures to PM2.5 on cell viabilities were also investigated. The largest reduction of 70% on cell viabilities was seen for indoor coal chunks stove housewives, indicating that the emissions from coal combustion had the greatest cytotoxic effects. The results evidenced that the heating ways in rural area could greatly impact on the housewife health in northwestern China. Advanced heating technology and protection should be conducted to reduce the personal exposures to PM2.5 from domestic solid fuel combustions.

Evaluation and characterization of volatile air toxics indoors in a heavy polluted city of northwestern China in wintertime

Hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and carbonyls were evaluated in typical dwellings in Xi'an in northwestern China in wintertime. High indoor concentrations were observed for formaldehyde, acetone, naphthalene, methylene chloride and acetaldehyde, associated with characteristic pollution sources. In comparison, many of the target VOCs were higher in Chinese dwellings than those in other countries, suggesting the significances of indoor pollutions in China. Source apportionment with receptor model shows that furniture and building materials (44.5%), paints and adhesives (11.9%), household products (17.3%), smoking (14.5%), and cooking (9.8%) are the major contributors to the indoor VOCs and carbonyls. The health risk assessment shows that the cancer risks for formaldehyde (5.73 × 10−5), 1,3-butadiene (2.07 × 10−5) and 1,2-dichloroethane (1.44 × 10−5) were much higher than the acceptable level of 1 × 10−6 recommended by International Register for Certified Auditors (IRCA). The hazard quotient (HQ) of target VOCs were far less than the threshold (HQ = 1). Moreover, the practical efficiency of household air purifier in removal of the VOCs and carbonyls was examined first time in dwellings in northern China. The results prove that most of the indoor organic pollutants and their cancer risk to humans can be efficiently reduced, particularly for formaldehyde and 1,3-butadiene. The findings of the study offer useful preliminary and updated information on current indoor air toxics levels, dominant pollution sources and their potential health risks to residents in northwest China.

Hypertension and High Blood Pressure Are Associated With Dementia Among Chinese Dwelling Elderly: The Shanghai Aging Study.

Background: To explore the association between blood pressure and cognition in older participants in the Shanghai Aging Study.Methods: Data were drawn from 3,327 participants at the baseline of Shanghai Aging Study. History of hypertension was inquired and confirmed from participants' medical records. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were measured by research nurses in the early morning. Participants were diagnosed with “cognitive normal,” “mild cognitive impairment (MCI),” or “dementia” by neurologists using DSM-IV and Petersen criteria. Multivariate logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between history of hypertension, duration of hypertension, SBP, DBP, or classification of blood pressure and cognitive function. Generalized linear model was used to assess the relation between duration of hypertension, SBP, or DBP and Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE).Results: A significantly higher proportion of hypertension [78 (76.5%)] was found in participants with dementia than in those with MCI [347 (59.3%)] and cognitive normal [1,350 (51.1%)] (P < 0.0001). Participants with dementia had significantly higher SBP [157.6 (26.1) mmHg] than those with MCI [149.0 (23.7) mmHg] and cognitive normal [143.7 (22.6) mmHg] (P < 0.0001). After adjusting for sex, age, education, living alone, body mass index, anxiety, depression, heart disease, diabetes, and stroke, the likelihood of having dementia was positively associated with history of hypertension (OR = 2.10; 95% CI: 1.22, 3.61), duration of hypertension (OR = 1.02 per increment year; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.04), higher SBP (OR = 1.14 per increment of 10 mmHg; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.25), higher DBP (OR = 1.22 per increment of 10 mmHg; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.45), moderate hypertension (OR = 2.09; 95% CI: 1.10, 3.99), or severe hypertension (OR = 2.45; 95% CI: 1.20, 4.99). The MMSE score was inversely correlated to duration of hypertension (β = −0.0088 per increment year; 95% CI: −0.0158, −0.0018, P = 0.0132), SBP (β = −0.0655 per increment of 10 mmHg; 95% CI: −0.1022, −0.0288, P = 0.0005), and DBP (β = −0.1230 per increment of 10 mmHg; 95% CI: −0.1915, −0.0545, P = 0.0004).Conclusion: Our results suggest that hypertension and high blood pressure may be potential risk factors for dementia. Blood pressure management for the elderly may be important for maintaining cognitive vitality.

Ventilation, indoor particle filtration, and energy consumption of an apartment in northern China

Ventilation is commonly thought to be helpful for improving indoor air quality. However, this may not be true when the outdoor air is polluted. For example, in the event of fog or haze in developing countries, outdoor particulate matter (PM) can be drawn into rooms by ventilation systems. In such circumstances, ventilation must be accompanied by indoor particle filtration. This investigation incorporated a particulate-filtration model into the EnergyPlus software. The validated software was then used to evaluate ventilation together with indoor particle filtration in a typical Chinese residential apartment. The ventilation modes included natural, mechanical, and hybrid ventilation. Transient air change rate, indoor CO2 and PM2.5 concentrations, air temperature, annual energy consumption, and utility costs were solved. For the mechanical systems, demand-controlled outdoor air rates and clean air delivery rates (CADRs) that ensure acceptable indoor air quality were also solved. It was found that indoor particulate filtration must be utilized in northern Chinese dwellings. A combination of natural ventilation and portable demand-controlled particulate filtration has the lowest operating cost, but the ventilation rate may occasionally be insufficient. Among the mechanical ventilation modes, decentralized systems operating only during the occupied period have great potential to minimize utility costs. Mechanical ventilation in demand-controlled operation and its hybrid with natural ventilation can further reduce energy consumption.

Impact of various ventilation modes on IAQ and energy consumption in Chinese dwellings: First long-term monitoring study in Tianjin, China

People typically spend many hours a day inside their homes. Outdoor PM2.5, indoor décor, and the activities of residents worsen indoor air quality. Natural ventilation, natural ventilation with a portable air cleaner (PAC), and mechanical ventilation are some of the main ventilation modes. However, limited data are available on the actual performance of different ventilation modes. We conducted a one-year on-site program of measurement in six apartments in Tianjin, China. The results showed that indoor air quality was affected by both outdoor particle concentration and indoor activities (walking, cooking, etc.). Natural ventilation alone cannot guarantee indoor air quality. A mechanical ventilation system could reduce the duration of high indoor particulate pollution periods to some extent; however, whole year monitoring revealed that it was not effective in increasing healthy time ratios. Reduction in CO2 concentrations above the standard levels through mechanical ventilation is 22.3% more than that through natural ventilation dwellings. Natural ventilation with a portable air cleaner can remove mass particulate pollution rapidly and maintain good indoor air quality with long-time operation. This study is expected to contribute towards the improvement of indoor air quality and the health of residents.

Dampness problems in Tianjin dwellings: A cross-sectional study of associations with building characteristics and lifestyles

This study investigated the association of building characteristics and occupant behaviours with building dampness indicators. Data were from a cross-sectional study in urban Tianjin and rural Cangzhou, China, from 2013 to 2014. We studied two fundamental types of Chinese dwellings: bungalows typical of rural locales and apartments in low- and high-rise buildings typical of urban settings. Occupants of bungalows reported more dampness indicators than apartment dwellers. Risk factors for one or more dampness indicators included natural ventilation without fans, older dwellings and coal stove or Kang heating system (a brick bed installed in the bedroom for heating and sleeping). All these factors were typical of bungalows, which generally used older building technologies including non-insulated external walls, wooden frame windows, electric fans for cooling and no exhaust fan ventilation. Occupant behaviours that decreased the risk for dampness indicators included frequent window opening and daily cleaning, regardless of the type of dwelling. Indoor dampness was highly correlated with mouldy and humid odour, and paradoxically (although not a new finding) with the perception of air dryness.

Indoor air pollutants, ventilation rate determinants and potential control strategies in Chinese dwellings: A literature review

After nearly twenty years of rapid modernization and urbanization in China, huge achievements have transformed the daily lives of the Chinese people. However, unprecedented environmental consequences in both indoor and outdoor environments have accompanied this progress and have triggered public awareness and demands for improved living standards, especially in residential environments. Indoor pollution data measured for >7000 dwellings (approximately 1/3 were newly decorated and were tested for volatile organic compound (VOC) measurements, while the rest were tested for particles, phthalates and other semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), moisture/mold, inorganic gases and radon) in China within the last ten years were reviewed, summarized and compared with indoor concentration recommendations based on sensory or health end-points. Ubiquitous pollutants that exceed the concentration recommendations, including particulate matter, formaldehyde, benzene and other VOCs, moisture/mold, inorganic gases and radon, were found, indicating a common indoor air quality (IAQ) issue in Chinese dwellings. With very little prevention, oral, inhalation and dermal exposure to those pollutants at unhealthy concentration levels is almost inevitable. CO2, VOCs, humidity and radon can serve as ventilation determinants, each with different ventilation demands and strategies, at typical occupant densities in China; and particle reduction should be a prerequisite for determining ventilation requirements. Two directional ventilation modes would have profound impacts on improving IAQ for Chinese residences are: 1) natural (or window) ventilation with an air cleaner and 2) mechanical ventilation with an air filtration unit, these two modes were reviewed and compared for their applicability and advantages and disadvantages for reducing human exposure to indoor air pollutants. In general, mode 2 can more reliably ensure good IAQ for occupants; while mode 1 is more applicable due to its low cost and low energy consumption. However, besides a roadmap, substantial efforts are still needed to develop affordable, applicable and general ventilation solutions to improve the IAQ of residential buildings in China.

English

Old town is like living fossil which has accumulated rich historical connotations; the one carrying the history of a region&rsquo;s political, economic, cultural and ecological changes as well as the formative art created by collective labors and wisdoms of generations. The preservation of ancient Chinese dwellings and old towns began late; many historical architectures and traditional country fairs are forcibly removed during the transformation of old cities and towns, thus ancient towns with their original historical looks are becoming less and less. In comparison, the preservation and development of old western towns started earlier than China; with rich experience, they offer good examples for China, especially the successful developing way: eco-tourism. By comparing the preservation and development of traditional Chinese towns&rsquo; landscape features to that of western ones, this paper points out that the future development of old towns rely on proper handling of the relation between preserving and the feasibility of renewing, so as to maintain the landscape features of old towns in the course of sustainable development. &nbsp; Key words: Traditional Changzhen, landscape environment, sustainable development, preservation.

Comparisons and Analysis on Architectural Features of Seven Typical Traditional Dwellings in China

The ancestors of China created various proper dwellings in the vast Chinese lands, according to distinct geographical environment, climate, and special local products. The purpose of this study is to compare features of 7 typical traditional Chinese dwellings in different areas from historical, geographical, structural and tinctorial aspects, in order to see what the differences are and rearrange them by these 4 different scales as estimate standards. By Comparing features between 7 traditional dwellings, advantages and disadvantages of them were found out. Not only natural terrain but also cultural mentality is an important factor that effected on the changes of regionality. The result showed that historical length in a certain extent reflected the differences between dwellings in different areas; there are more regular type dwellings in the northern China; dwellings in different structural material types following their regions; and, southern dwellings prefer natural and simple exterior colors. Also From construction aesthetics and culture perspective, Different cultures have cultivated and brought out different dwelling styles. Thus, protecting on traditional dwellings is of great necessities and this study will bring benefits in many aspects. For a further research, the result of this study can be utilized as the base data that suggest directions for effective Chinese residence planning in different areas meeting different demands.

Study on the Ecological Characteristics of the Seaweed House in Jiaodong Peninsula

The Chinese folk dwelling reflects the ideology of adjusting measures to local conditions and harmony between the heaven and human from the space layout and building details. Taking the seaweed house in the coastal areas of the Jiaodong Peninsula as the object of the study, this paper analyzed the ecological characteristics from the historical origin, building layout, building form and building space. And based on this, it revealed the ecological values and to provide the theatrical basis to local ecological building design.

Evolution of Research on Chinese Vernacular Dwellings

This paper briefly elaborates the evolution of research on Chinese vernacular dwellings from 1930s to now, puts forward the objective evolution process of Chinese vernacular dwellings by analyzing the change process of three limitative factors of research—space definition, research method and time scope, and concludes the new development trend of vernacular dwellings research in the next stage. Meanwhile, in order to verify the outwardness of evolution of research on Chinese vernacular dwellings, Suzhou and Changzhou are chosen for analogy to make analysis on the status quo and development of research in the two cities.

The Research on the Overseas Chinese Local-Style Dwelling Houses Building – Kaiping Watchtowers for Example

At present, we still can see many beautiful buildings combining Chinese and western architecture culture in the hometown of overseas Chinese. Through the overseas Chinese local-style dwelling houses buildings are researched and analyzed, we can realize the collision and blend between two kind of building culture, and to realize the value of these buildings. In this, we take Kaiping in Guangdong one of home town of overseas Chinese as an example to do some research on the overseas Chinese local-style dwelling houses building, and to expatiate how to deal with the challenge better in today's diversification architectural culture world.

Current Preservation and Development State of Traditional Changzhen (Old Towns)’ Landscape Features

Old towns is like living fossil which has accumulated rich historical connotations; the one carrying the history of a region’ political, economic, cultural and ecological changes as well as the formative art created by collective labors and wisdoms of generations. The preservation of ancient Chinese dwellings and old towns began late; many historical architectures and traditional country fairs are forcibly removed during the transformation of old cities and towns, thus ancient towns with their original historical looks are becoming less and less. In comparison, the preservation and development of old western towns started earlier than china, with rich experience, they offer good examples for china, especially the successful developing way: eco-tourism. By comparing the preservation and development of traditional Chinese towns’ landscape features to that of western ones, this paper points out that the future development of old towns rely on proper handling of the relation between preserving and the feasibility of renewing, so as to maintain the landscape features of old towns in the course of sustainable development.

Research on the Changeable Strategy of Chinese Traditional Courtyard Dwelling’s Form Based on Climatic Adaptability

Chinese traditional architecture construction has some ecological ideas in common with principles of Green Architecture. This article introduces briefly the basic composition of Chinese courtyard dwelling form and its climatic advantages, and analyzes the changeable strategy of courtyard dwelling developing into variation forms so as to adapt to different regional climates. It also sums up the characteristics of the changeable strategy and the spirit of Chinese traditional philosophy it implies, which could be an inspiration to the research on climatic-responsively energy-saving modern architecture.

ANALYSIS ON THE TERMS OF DWELLING HOUSES IN SONG-SHI

There are few studies about Chinese dwelling houses in historical ages because there are small research materials for it. However, there are many descriptions of dwelling houses in the records of disaster and extraordinary phenomena. Such descriptions are very simple but the total number of these descriptions is large. So I picked up such descriptions from Song-shi 宋史 and counted each term which may mean dwelling houses.As results, I got many terms and analyzed main 7 terms. Lushe 廬舎 means popular buildings, Min-she 民舎 means popular buildings of non-government people, Min-lu 民廬 means buildings which made by light materials, Min-ju 民居 means dwelling houses, Tian-lu 田廬 means buildings with fields, Jie 家 means someone's house, Wu 屋 means buildings and roofs.

Boundaries and openings: spatial strategies in the Chinese dwelling

Dwelling implies the establishment of a meaningful relationship between people and a given environment. Through physical spaces, people identify and orient themselves by symbolically expressing the meaning of social–cultural behavior. This paper examines the spatial meanings in the traditional Chinese family by analyzing the placement and arrangement of walls and courtyards. Specifically, this paper studies how physical space was defined and developed within the Chinese family by the spatial articulation of human relationships and the functions of daily life and how these spatial arrangements reinforced family hierarchies through purposeful separation and togetherness. The findings reveal that through binding together the family relationship and spatial concerns, Confucian discourses and practice were attached to the daily life of every Chinese. In addition, this study indicates that the primary concern in a Chinese house was not togetherness but separateness.

Characteristics of carbonyls: Concentrations and source strengths for indoor and outdoor residential microenvironments in China

Indoor and outdoor carbonyl concentrations were measured simultaneously in 12 urban dwellings in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Xi’an, China in summer (from July to September in 2004) and winter (from December 2004 to February 2005). Formaldehyde was the most abundant indoor carbonyls species, while formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acetone were found to be the most abundant outdoor carbonyls species. The average formaldehyde concentrations in summer indoor air varied widely between cities, ranging from a low of 19.3 μg m −3 in Xi’an to a high of 92.8 μg m −3 in Beijing. The results showed that the dwellings with tobacco smoke, incense burning or poor ventilation had significantly higher indoor concentrations of certain carbonyls. It was noticed that although one half of the dwellings in this study installed with low emission building materials or furniture, the carbonyls levels were still significantly high. It was also noted that in winter both the indoor and outdoor acetone concentrations in two dwellings in Guangzhou were significantly high, which were mainly caused by the usage of acetone as industrial solvent in many paint manufacturing and other industries located around Guangzhou and relatively longer lifetime of acetone for removal by photolysis and OH reaction than other carbonyls species. The indoor carbonyls levels in Chinese dwellings were higher than that in dwellings in the other countries. The levels of indoor and ambient carbonyls showed great seasonal differences. Six carbonyls species were carried out the estimation of indoor source strengths. Formaldehyde had the largest indoor source strength, with an average of 5.25 mg h −1 in summer and 1.98 mg h −1 in winter, respectively. However, propionaldehyde, crotonaldehyde and benzaldehyde had the weakest indoor sources.

House, home, family: living and being Chinese

Drawing on the work of leading scholars in the fields of anthropology, architecture, art, art history, geography, and history, House Home Family explores and analyzes the functional, social, and symbolic attributes of Chinese dwellings. It goes beyond generalization to clarify the diverse nature of house, home, and family in China, exploring such topics as the Chinese garden as an integral part of living, house-building ritual and fengshui, architectural aesthetics, the inter-relatedness of furniture and architecture, preservation of historical structures, the structure and development of the family (fla), gender and household space, the role of lineage in the construction of ritual and social space, the function and meaning of the architectural division of space, and domestic space and privacy. The Chinese house, the elementary space in which a family lives and works, resonates the tensions between continuity and innovation that characterize China today. As a dynamic instrument of socialization and a domain of propriety, its inner and outer spaces as well as ornamentation and ritual helped shape the identity of the Chinese and simultaneously serve as a reflection of this identity. This inaugural volume in the series Spatial Habitus: Making and Meaning in Asia's Vernacular Architecture contains over 500 illustrations, most in color and including a number of rare drawings that demonstrate the richness of domestic architecture and living patterns in traditional and contemporary China. Through its exploration of how Chinese families are organized and why Chinese construct their living spaces the way they do, this carefully researched, convincingly argued, and refreshingly insightful book yields a deeper and wider understanding of what it means to live and be Chinese.

Elevated Indoor Exposure in Chinese Carbon Brick and Cave Dwellings

In two rural provinces of China residents are exposed to significantly elevated levels of natural radiation: in Gansu Province millions of people have been living in earth-dug cave dwellings for several generations; in Jiangxi Province several hundred thousand inhabitants reside in carbon-brick dwellings, containing elevated levels of 238U and 226Ra. In a pilot study regional lung cancer mortality rates were investigated in the affected areas and were found to be higher than for control groups in normal dwellings in the same area.