Chinese Christian Research Articles

Religion and Social Trust: Evidence From Chinese Christians in New Zealand

Social trust is vital for immigrant societies with diverse backgrounds, as it bridges differences, fosters mutual understanding, and facilitates collective actions. While most studies on the relationship between religion and social trust focus on North America and Europe, little is known about this dynamic in New Zealand. This paper examines Chinese New Zealander Christians to explore how religion fosters social trust. The findings were derived from an interpretive analysis of 47 Chinese New Zealander Christians from mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Most interviewees exhibited low general trust in strangers because of the complex and untrustworthy post-pandemic social environment. Believing in Christianity did not mitigate this negative impact. Interviewees’ particular trust in fellow congregators varied. Social network theory offers a plausible explanation for this phenomenon. Most interviewees cultivated trust in fellow congregators through frequent informal interactions outside churches. Regular face-to-face religious activities and a shared religious identity had little impact on forming particular trust in other Christians. Furthermore, Chinese Christians were internally divided based on their homelands and dialects, hindering them from constructing a shared identity. The findings enhance our understanding of how religion affects social trust among ethnic minority immigrants and their identity construction within religious communities.

Chinese Christian Community in Modern Singapore: The Case of the Jubilee Church, 1883–1942

The Chinese Christian community occupies an essential position in the pluralistic religious landscape of modern Singapore, which is known as a multicultural and multiracial immigrant society. Despite being a minority compared with Buddhists and Taoists in Singapore, the historical formation and contemporary existence of the Chinese Christian community in Singapore not only embodies religious diversity, but also contributes significantly to Singapore’s social development. This paper zooms into the founding and evolution of the Jubilee Church to see how Chinese Christians contributed to the revolutionary cause, took part in the anti-opium movement, and advanced educational activities in Singapore. Particularly, by establishing the Singapore Reading Room, participating in the founding of the Anti-Opium Society and the Chinese Kindergarten, the Jubilee Church played an important role in Singapore’s history, contributing to the modernization of Singapore in terms of advancing ideas, improving social order, and promoting education. We aim to shed light on how Chinese Christians were engaged in social activities, taking up significant roles in the transformation of the Chinese diaspora in Singapore. More importantly, we argue that these varied social engagements significantly impacted the development of Christianity. Through a detailed historical case study on the Jubilee Church, this paper proposes that social functions and religious evangelization are mutually constitutive, thus complicating our understanding of the entangled relationship among Chinese diaspora, Christianity, and motherland China.

Jewish Elements in the Ancient Chinese Christian Manuscript Yishen Lun (Discourse on God)

This article identifies and analyzes four passages in the ancient Chinese Christian manuscript Yishen Lun (YSL) that exhibit distinct Jewish characteristics. The phrase “yizhong zuo shenghua” (lines 356–358) mirrors the Book of Acts’ theme of “sanctification of the Gentiles,” rooted in the Jewish dichotomous worldview, placing Jews, or Shihu Ren, at the center. The author’s use of this phrase distinguishes him from yizhong ren (Gentiles) and aligns him with Shihu Ren. In lines 256–263, YSL directly attributes messianic declarations to Jesus, a central issue in Jewish accusations of false Messiahship. In contrast, the Gospel accounts avoid making such direct accusations, as Jesus did not openly declare himself the Messiah. This distinction highlights YSL’s closer alignment with Jewish polemical traditions and legal concerns. Additionally, the use of “City of Judah” in lines 345–347 as an archaic designation for Jerusalem, predominantly found in Jewish traditions, contrasts with the more common “City of David” in other biblical texts. A philological analysis of lines 279–281 reveals imagery analogous to the synagogue parochet covering the Ark of the Scrolls. These four Jewish elements complement the one analyzed in the author’s earlier 2024 article, “The Parable of Wise and Foolish Builders in Yishen Lun and Rabbinic Literature.” That study concludes that the parable of wise and foolish builders in lines 146–156 of YSL aligns more closely with Jewish rabbinic traditions than the Gospel version. These new hermeneutical insights should provide interesting and fresh data for ongoing research into YSL.

State of the Field Report XV: Contemporary Chinese Studies of the Scholastic-Aristotelian Soul in Late-Ming and Early-Qing China

AbstractThe Jesuit China mission coincided with a sophisticated attempt to place Chinese and Western concepts of human nature in dialogue with Confucianism. The Jesuits believed that they could facilitate evangelization by drawing upon Confucian concepts to explain the soul. In so doing, they and their Chinese collaborators also pioneered a genre of hybrid philosophical texts, which used Aristotelian conceptions of the soul to critique and supplement autochthonous Chinese conceptions of human nature. These texts are not just of significance for Chinese Christian theology, but also anthropology, psychology, and even medicine, given the role played by the soul in both Chinese and Western conceptions of human physiology at the time. Until recently these texts have been little studied except by missiologists who were more interested in their relevance for mission history than for comparative philosophy. Scholarship has perhaps also been hampered by the immense linguistic demands of studying texts that sit between the Chinese and Western intellectual traditions. Recently, however, a number of Chinese scholars have turned their attention to these texts, intrigued by novel philosophical ideas contained therein and their complex relationship to both the Western and Chinese intellectual and religious traditions. Since many of these Chinese-language contributions are published in volumes which are not easily accessible outside of China, they have not enjoyed great visibility in Western-language scholarship. This article will review the major developments in Chinese scholarship and will conclude with suggestions for future research.

Incarnation and the Unity of Heaven and Humans

Zia Nai-zin 謝乃壬, Xie Fu-ya or Hsieh Fu-yah 謝扶雅 (1892–1991), a remarkable Chinese Christian philosopher, theologian, and translator, developed his unique philosophy of “in-ism” (唯中論) from the 1960s to 1980s to indigenize Christianity into the ideal “Chinese Christianity” (中華基督教). Zia declared that the essence of Confucianism is the concept of Zhong 中 (neutrality, avoidance of extremes) and compared the Confucian teaching of the Unity of Heaven and Humans (天人合一) with the Christian Christology, which argues that Jesus Christ is the unity of divinity and humanity. Zia further stated that New Confucians emphasize the Way of Humans over the Way of Heaven, while the Christian doctrine of incarnation balanced both divinity and humanity and achieved the Unity of Heaven and Humans. While Zia’s reinterpretation of the Doctrine of the Mean is controversial, following the recently developed method of sublation, this paper aims to evaluate whether Zia’s Christian reinterpretation of Zhongyong 中庸 has successfully sublated Confucianism and Christianity. I argue that although Zia’s interpretation of Zhongyong contains certain philological flaws, overall he successfully produced new insights enriching both Christianity and Confucianism by grounding both on the same ontological ground of Zhong.

Book Review: Christians in the city of Hong Kong: Chinese Christianity in Asia's world city

Book Review: Christians in the city of Hong Kong: Chinese Christianity in Asia's world city

The Influence of Qiu Jun on Jesuit Missionaries and Chinese Christian Texts in Ming–Qing China

The Influence of Qiu Jun on Jesuit Missionaries and Chinese Christian Texts in Ming–Qing China

Mutual submission, not complementarianism: Reviving the Chinese marital theology of Watchman Nee and Wang Mingdao

Many Christians in both America and China follow an ideology that has come to be known as gender complementarianism. The husband is the undisputed “head of the household” and the wife must graciously submit to his leadership and decision-making, even if she disagrees with him. During the 2000s, complementarian theology espoused by American parachurch organizations FamilyLife and Focus on the Family spread in China. Today, many house church Christians advocate complementarianism. However, back in the 1940s and 50s, several important (fundamentalist and mainline) Chinese Christian leaders saw Christian marriage more in terms of mutual submission than gendered hierarchy. Rather than seeing husbands as more responsible for leadership and decision-making than wives, Watchman Nee, Wang Mingdao, and the people involved in the Christianizing the Home movement highlighted the need for both spouses to sacrifice, cultivate intimacy, forgive, and communicate well. This may not be the dominant vision of marriage in Chinese house churches today, but it is a long-standing tradition in Chinese Protestant history, one that some individuals in China today are continuing to put forward.

Interdependency and Change: God in the Chinese Theology of Xie Fuya (1892–1991)

Xie Fuya (1892–1991), a major Chinese Christian thinker, has contributed much to the development of Sino-theology. However, his work has yet to receive the recognition it deserves. As a thinker who is well-versed in both Chinese and Western philosophies while dedicating himself to the exploration of the philosophy of religion, Xie presents a dual feature in his writings. On the one hand, his work engages in a dialogical discourse between Eastern and Western philosophies. On the other hand, his writings represent an ambitious attempt to interpret traditional Chinese philosophical tenets within the context of Christian theology, transverse from the level of human nature to the level of ontological existence, representing an innovative model of contemplation in the field of Sino-theology. This contribution is of immense value to the development of Chinese philosophical thought. For this reason, this article attempts to illustrate, through Xie’s writings in various stages of his life, his relentless effort to promote the integration of Eastern and Western philosophies within the framework of Chinese thought. His most notable accomplishment in this East–West confluence effort is his unique assumption of God’s attributions as both zhonghe (literally “middle harmony”, connoted as interdependency by Xie) and bianyi (change).

The Indigenization Strategies of Catholic Painting in Early 20th Century China

The spread of Christianity to China initiated a process of indigenization, particularly evident in Christian art. This study explores the indigenization of early 20th-century Chinese Christian paintings through literature reviews, case studies, and comparative research. The analysis covers four forms of primary research. First, it explores the indigenization of Christian concepts, tracing their development from the introduction of Nestorian Christianity in the Tang dynasty through the establishment of Fu Jen Catholic University in the Republican era. Matteo Ricci’s implementation of the “Ricci Rule” during the late Ming dynasty, subsequently expanded by Celso Costantini, played a crucial role in the indigenous adaptation of Christian painting in China. The second facet focuses on the Beijing Catholic School of Painting, led by Chen Yuandu, a group that innovated Chinese Christian art by integrating local artistic expressions with traditional depictions of saints, assimilating symbols from Chinese literati painting, and preserving time-honored Chinese painting techniques. The third facet examines the strategy behind Christian painting methods. Fourth, this study discusses how the Fu Jen School faced varied reception and evaluations from domestic and international audiences under the complex social currents of the Republic of China and how the artists reflected the national spirit and artistic responsibility in their narrative paintings. Fundamentally, the practice of Christian painting at the early 20th-century Catholic School is not only an innovative artistic endeavor but also a significant case of cultural exchange between East and West and religious localization.

Reflections on the Research of Chinese Christian’s View of Suffering Based upon Fusion of Horizons: Understanding and Reviewing “Research on Christian’s View of Suffering”

Humans have always tried to understand suffering as a condition of existence, and grasping the notion of suffering is central to understanding a culture. "A Study of the Christian Concept of Suffering" employs the method of religious anthropology to explore the Christian understanding of suffering from the dimensions of reason, faith, and reality, revealing that the actual concept of suffering among Chinese Christians is a result of the integration of Chinese traditional culture with Christian cultural perspectives. Comparing the understanding of suffering in traditional Chinese culture with that in Christianity, based on this Fusion of Horizons, will deepen and advance the study of the problem of suffering and holds significant theoretical and practical importance for the sinicization of Christianity.

From Singing “Out-of-Tone” to Creating Contextualized Cantonese Contemporary Worship Songs: Hong Kong in the Decentralization of Chinese Christianity

For over a century, Hong Kong Christians have sung Chinese hymns in an “out-of-tone” manner. Lyrics in traditional hymnals were translated or written to be sung in Mandarin, the national language, but most locals speak Cantonese, another Sinitic and tonal language. Singing goes “out-of-tone” when Mandarin hymns are sung in Cantonese, which often causes meaning distortions. Why did Hong Kong Christians accept this practice? How did they move from singing “out-of-tone” to creating contextualized Cantonese contemporary worship songs? What does this process reveal about the evolution of Chinese Christianity? From a Hong Kong-centered perspective, this article reconstructs the city’s hymnological development. I consider the creation of national Mandarin hymnals during Republican China as producing a nationalistic Mainland-centric and Mandarin-centric Chinese Christianity. Being on the periphery, Hong Kong Christians did not have the resources to develop their own hymns and thus continued to worship “out-of-tone”. With the decline of the old Chinese Christian center of Shanghai, the growth of Cantonese culture and Hongkonger identity, and the influence of Western pop and Christian music, local Christians began to create Cantonese contemporary worship songs. This hymnological contextualization reflects and contributes to not only the decolonization but, more importantly, the decentralization of Chinese Christianity.

The Reception History of The Seven Victories and the Localization of The Seven Victories Spiritual Cultivation

The Seven Victories is one of the most influential works in Catholic literature from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. The seven victories spiritual cultivation contained therein is the result of the localization of the practice of the Christian faith in the West. It is still a living tradition in the Christian religion and even in Western culture. Since the end of the Ming Dynasty, The Seven Victories has aroused significant repercussions in the ecclesiastical and academic worlds. Some scholars converted to Catholicism because of The Seven Victories and wrote preambles in response to it; some scholars wrote essays criticizing the ethical ideas of The Seven Victories; and some scholars were inspired by The Seven Victories to write about Confucian ideas of sin, the work of reform, and the liturgy of repentance. Together, these constitute the history of the reception of The Seven Victories in China. Through Confucian culture integration, Chinese Christian scholars have developed a localized interpretation of the seven victories spiritual cultivation, resulting in a localized Chinese spiritual cultivation of sin.

Jesuits as Diplomats in the Service of Chinese Emperors in Early Modern Times

In East Asia, China played a special role spreading its superior culture to other nations. The relations between Europe and China, however, were besides trade destined by the attempts to spread Catholicism and later also Protestantism in China. Especially during the 17th and 18th centuries some of the Western missionaries bringing Western religion to China also tried to interpret traditional Chinese rituals like the veneration of Confucius and the ancestors in a pejorative way declaring these rites to be superstitious and to forbid them for Chinese Christians. The legation of the papal delegate Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon (1668- 1710) to China brought the latent quarrel between the adherents and the adversaries of the Rites to an outbreak. The Kangxi Emperor (1662-1722) tried to explain his attitude to the Holy See in Rome. Therefore, after several more general delegations of Jesuits to Europe Kangxi sent special embassies to Rome concerning the Chinese Rites. His efforts, however, to solve the problems and to protect Christianity and missionaries respecting the Chinese culture failed and the Rites were condemned.

Contextualizing Transnational Chinese Christianity: A Relational Approach

In recent years, the number of Chinese Christian organizations in Europe has grown considerably compared to other overseas Chinese community organizations. They can mobilize transnational networks and resources to expand religious space in host societies and form a highly visible social force. Although the rise of early Christianity in the Western world has been considered an outcome of inherent religious strength, especially in terms of its central doctrines and religious ethics, this article suggests that in the diasporic Chinese world where Christianity constitutes a non-indigenous religious tradition, social relatedness based on native place, family, and kinship ties provides a more useful context for understanding its dynamic expansion and cross-regional transmission. Drawing on anthropological fieldwork conducted in Europe among overseas Chinese Christian traders and entrepreneurs, this research seeks an alternative framework for understanding the religious-cultural dynamics of Chinese Christianity in the context of transnational migration.

Back to Jerusalem: The Chinese-Christian Road to Globalization and Self-fulfillment

The Chinese Christian Back to Jerusalem (BTJ) movement has attracted significant attention in the past two decades. With an original goal of sending out 100,000 Chinese missionaries to destinations throughout Asia, the movement appears to express the vitality and dynamism of reform-era Chinese Christianity. In this article I examine the movement’s development and its close correspondence to Chinese state geopolitical ambitions to reshape twenty-first-century globalization through the One Belt One Road Initiative. I discuss the movement, development, and impact following the recent tightening of religious policy in China and the COVID-19 pandemic. While the BTJ may be seen as a Christian expression of the PRC’s self-confidence and nationalism it is also reflective of reform-era individuality, often including deep criticism of contemporary Chinese society.

Representations of Christianity in Chinese Independent Cinema: Gan Xiao’er’s Postsocialist Religious Critique

Representations of Christianity in contemporary Chinese cinema are very limited, making the scholarship of this subject underexplored. Filmmaker Gan Xiao’er has made three feature-length independent films focusing on Christianity in China. These films, The Only Sons (2003), Raised from Dust (2007), and Waiting for God (2012), are used for case studies, with close analyses of their narratives and formal elements. They are also examined in the social and cultural contexts of postsocialist China. This article argues that Gan’s religious features are significant in the context of postsocialist Chinese cinema. They not only depict the religious experience of Chinese Christians, which has been under-represented cinematically, but also provide a religious critique rarely seen in Chinese films. On the one hand, these films critically engage with the experience of underprivileged people during the Reform period, when economic development and materialism became dominant, while the socialist political system remained. Gan’s religious features provide an alternative perspective that cares for people’s spiritual needs. On the other hand, Gan’s later films interrogate the local religious institution in China, questioning the arbitrary separation of the ‘holy’ and the ‘unholy’, proposing a more inclusive approach to the religious concept of love.

Building Communities through Rituals: Glimpses into the Life of Chinese Christian Communities in the 17th Century

As central agents in the cultural dialogue between China and Europe in the 17th century, Christian Chinese communities represent a rich and fascinating source, offering a unique intercultural perspective on the intellectual, cultural, and religious world of late Ming and early Qing China. What did these communities look like? How did they come into being and maintain their significance as a community? By utilising stories depicting scenes of Christian ritual practices in local Chinese contexts between the 1620s and 1640s, collected by a late Ming Christian convert from Fujian, this article delves into the life of Chinese Christian communities, specifically focusing on the dimension of ritual practice. It shows how rituals played a key role in the formation of these communities, not only in keeping them alive, but also in continually redefining their significance for their members.

Literati Ingredients in the 17th-Century Chinese Christian Paintings

In this paper, the modification methods of the Chinese Christian painting created by the missionaries in the late Ming Dynasty (1573–1644) were analyzed with the Chinese Catholic studies of the “Song nianzhu guicheng” and the “Tianzhu Jiangsheng Chuxiang Jingjie”. After carefully studying the differences between the Chinese Christian painting and the original European version, the study shows that these Chinese Christian paintings were integrated with the Chinese literati paintings’ elements and literati symbols, which include the “Yudiancun” (raindrop texture stroke), “Pimacun” (hemp-fiber texture stroke), “landscape screen” (painted screens with natural landscapes), and the mark of Chinese famous literati such as Dong Qichang. These adjustments conducted by missionaries aimed to make religious paintings more in line with literati aesthetics, which could build connections between the missionaries and the literati community for proselytization. However, the missionaries neglected that the literati community certainly would not sacrifice the existing social order and the vested interest brought by the current Confucian culture to support new ideas of “liberty” and “equality” in the Catholic doctrine, which caused a huge setback in the missionary work since the Nanjing Teaching Case in 1616. This research makes significant contributions to the understanding of cultural exchanges in the 17th century through a detailed exploration of the adjustments made by missionaries in the visual representations within Chinese Catholic literature.

Late-Ming Book Culture and the Fujian Christian Community: a Case Study of Lixiu yijian 勵修一鑑 (A Mirror to Encourage Self-cultivation)

Abstract This study demonstrates the importance of book culture in the building of a religious community and in the preservation and interpretation of local experiences, through the making of a book titled Lixiu yijian 勵修一鑑 (A mirror to encourage self-cultivation) around 1645. The main author, Li Jiugong 李久功, mobilized members of the Fujian Christian community to collaborate on this communal book project outside the Christian church. Both xylographic print culture and manuscript culture were involved in the process and in the final product of this project. Through genre affiliation, content categorization, and the addition of commentaries, Li and his associates transformed the diverse source materials into a cohesive guidebook for their fellow Christian readers. The book provided Chinese references or contexts to stories of Western origin. Meanwhile, it also portrayed a group image of devoted and resourceful local Chinese Christians among their Western peers, thus promoting Chinese Christians’ experience as an invaluable part of a universal religious system.