Chinese American Mothers Research Articles

Chinese American Immigrant Mothers’ Discussion of Emotion With Children

This study examined the unique relations of American and Chinese cultural orientations to the content and quality of first-generation Chinese American immigrant mothers’ emotion discussion with their school-aged children (age = 5 to 9 years). Mother-child dyads ( n = 187) were videotaped during a storytelling task, and various aspects of mothers’ emotion talk were coded. Mothers self-reported on their cultural orientations in language proficiency and behaviors (i.e., media use and social affiliations). Controlling for socioeconomic status, mother’s age, child age, gender, and generation status, as well as the length, elaborateness, and language (English and/or Chinese) of storytelling, mothers’ Chinese orientation was uniquely associated with their lower use of emotion questions and explanations and a lower quality of emotion discussion. Although mothers’ American orientation was positively correlated with their use of positive emotion words and emotion explanations, it did not uniquely predict emotion discussion after controlling for other predictors.

Impact of a Nutrition Education Program to Increase Intake of Calcium-Rich Foods by Chinese-American Women

Chinese-American women have a high risk of osteoporosis. However, their calcium intake has been reported previously as considerably below the Dietary Reference Intake. Increasing consumption of calcium-rich foods, many of which are also fortified with vitamin D, is a safe way to increase their calcium and vitamin D intake. This study's objective was to pilot-test an intervention to help Chinese-American women incorporate calcium-rich foods into their diet. This intervention was evaluated using a quasi-experimental study with a nested design and pre-, immediate post-, and 3-month follow-up assessments. Calcium and vitamin D intake, Theory of Planned Behavior constructs, and knowledge were measured at three time points. First-generation Chinese-American mothers between 35 and 55 years old (n=141) were recruited from six weekend Chinese schools. Three Chinese schools each were randomly assigned to the experimental (n=71) or control group (n=70). The experimental group received a free heel scan and six weekly interactive lessons designed based on the Theory of Planned Behavior. The control group received six weekly nonrelated financial lessons by mail. Changes for each measure were assessed by linear mixed model with repeated measures adjusted for confounding variables. Compared to the control group, the experimental group improved all measures considerably, except two subjective norm constructs (normative belief and motivation to comply) at post-assessments. The experimental group significantly increased its baseline calcium ( t=7.898, P<0.001) and vitamin D intake ( t=6.609; P<0.001) at posttest and this increase was retained at follow-up. Results suggest that this theory-based intervention is effective for increasing the dietary calcium and vitamin D intake of Chinese-American women.

The differential association between education and infant mortality by nativity status of Chinese American mothers: a life-course perspective.

Integrating evidence from demography and epidemiology, we investigated whether the association between maternal achieved status (education) and infant mortality differed by maternal place of origin (nativity) over the life course of Chinese Americans. We conducted a population-based cohort study of singleton live births to US-resident Chinese American mothers using National Center for Health Statistics 1995 to 2000 linked live birth and infant death cohort files. We categorized mothers by nativity (US born [n = 15 040] or foreign born [n = 150 620]) and education (≥ 16 years, 13-15 years, or ≤ 12 years), forming 6 life-course trajectories. We performed Cox proportional hazards regressions of infant mortality. We found significant nativity-by-education interaction via stratified analyses and testing interaction terms (P < .03) and substantial differentials in infant mortality across divergent maternal life-course trajectories. Low education was more detrimental for the US born, with the highest risk among US-born mothers with 12 years or less of education (adjusted hazard ratio = 2.39; 95% confidence interval = 1.33, 4.27). Maternal nativity and education synergistically affect infant mortality among Chinese Americans, suggesting the importance of searching for potential mechanisms over the maternal life course and targeting identified high-risk groups and potential downward mobility.

Perinatal Outcomes Among Foreign-Born and US-Born Chinese Americans, 1995–2000

This paper examines nativity differences in adverse perinatal outcomes of Chinese-American mothers. Singleton live births to US-resident Chinese women (150,620 foreign-born, 15,040 US-born) and a random sample of 150,620 non-Hispanic White mothers were selected from 1995 to 2000 national linked birth/infant death certificate files. Associations between maternal nativity status and adverse perinatal outcomes were assessed using multivariable logistic regressions. Compared to US-born Chinese mothers, foreign-born Chinese mothers were less likely to be unmarried, teen mothers, have a non-Hispanic White or other race partner, be rural residents, and more likely to be less educated, or utilize prenatal care inadequately. Controlling for these factors, foreign-born Chinese-American mothers had significantly lower risks for low birth weight, preterm birth, and small-for-gestational age, whereas risks for infant mortality, neonatal mortality, and post-neonatal mortality did not differ significantly from those of infants of US-born Chinese mothers. Chinese Americans exhibited clear nativity differentials for adverse birth outcomes.

Mothers' self-reported emotional expression in Mainland Chinese, Chinese American and European American families

This study compared Mainland Chinese, Chinese American and European American mothers' self-reported emotional expression within the family. Mothers of 3-year-old European American ( n = 40), Chinese American (n = 39) and Mainland Chinese (n = 36) children (n = 20 girls per group) completed the Self-Expressiveness in the Family Questionnaire (SEFQ), a measure that includes 40 items describing the expression of positive and negative emotion (20 items each). Respondents indicate how frequently they engage in each expressive practice. Mothers also completed a questionnaire regarding family ecology variables. European American mothers reported significantly more positive emotional expression than Mainland Chinese mothers, although no significant differences were found for expression of negative emotion. While family ecology differed across groups, these variables were not related to the emotional expression scores. No child-gender differences were obtained. Results of this study confirm the presence of cultural differences in mothers' emotional expressivity.

Early Postpartum Sleep and Fatigue for Mothers After Cesarean Delivery Compared With Vaginal Delivery

The purpose of this study was to describe sleep and fatigue during the first week of postpartum recovery, and compare women after cesarean delivery with women after vaginal delivery while their infants were hospitalized in the intensive care unit (ICU). This cross-sectional descriptive exploratory study involved 21 postpartum Chinese American mothers (6 after cesarean delivery and 15 after vaginal delivery). Three types of data were collected: (1) mothers' demographic data; (2) objective sleep that included total sleep time (TST) and wake after sleep onset (WASO) measured using wrist actigraphy, and (3) subjective sleep quality (General Sleep Disturbance Scale) and fatigue severity (Numerical Rating Scale-Fatigue). All of the mothers experienced poor sleep while their 3- to 5-day-old infants were in the ICU. After cesarean birth, mothers averaged only about 4 hours TST with 34% WASO while still hospitalized, compared with 6.5 hours TST with 14% WASO for mothers after vaginal birth monitored in their home after hospital discharge. Sleep disturbances and fatigue need to be further investigated to better understand the relationship between type of delivery and maternal health outcomes. Despite infant care provided in ICUs, these new mothers could benefit from interventions to promote their own sleep, particularly when also recovering from cesarean delivery.

Mothers' achievement beliefs and behaviors and their children's school readiness: A cultural comparison

We explored the relationships among mothers' attributional beliefs, mothers' behaviors, and children's school readiness in European- and Chinese-American mothers and their 4-year-olds. Mothers rated the importance of ability, effort, teachers, and parents as causes of children's academic success, and reported how many times in the previous week they had read with their children. Children's autonomy and mothers' encouragement of children's autonomy were evaluated while mother–child pairs performed a joint task. Children completed a school readiness test. Chinese-American children scored higher on autonomy and school readiness than their European-American peers, and Chinese-American mothers showed stronger effort-related beliefs than European-American mothers. Mothers' attributional beliefs in effort were significantly related to their autonomy encouragement. Contrary to our hypotheses, mothers' behaviors were unrelated to school readiness or child autonomy.

The Parenting of Immigrant Chinese and European American Mothers: Relations Between Parenting Styles, Socialization Goals, and Parental Practices

Clarification of the cultural meaning of parenting for immigrant Chinese was determined, focusing on parenting style as well as socialization goals and practices. Although the cultural relevance of an alternative parenting style, training, has been demonstrated for Chinese parents, the broader-level cultural values or socialization goals and parental practices that may be related to training have not been examined. Immigrant Chinese n = 95 and European American n = 52 mothers of children in the first through third grades completed measures of Baumrind's parenting styles and Chao's training items, in addition to measures of socialization goals and practices (parental involvement in school). This study found that Chinese mothers endorsed the training, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles, while also endorsing socialization goals for filial piety and structural parental involvement practices in comparison with European American mothers. However, additional analyses for examining ethnic group differences in the associations between training and the other parenting scales, these associations were similar for immigrant Chinese and European American mothers.

Chinese and European American Mothers' Beliefs about the Role of Parenting in Children's School Success

In a cross-cultural comparison of parental beliefs, this study asked a sample of 48 immigrant Chinese and 50 European American mothers of preschool-aged children their perspectives regarding the role of parenting in their children's school success. In their responses, the Chinese mothers conveyed (a) the great degree of value they place on education, (b) the high investment and sacrifice they feel they need to offer, (c) the more direct intervention approach to their children's schooling and learning, and (d) a belief that they can play a significant role in the school success of their children. On the other hand, European American mothers primarily expressed (a) a negation of the importance of academics or academic skills (instead emphasizing the importance of social skills), (b) a less "directive" approach to learning explained under the "facilitative" model, and (c) a concern for building their children's self-esteem.

Cultural Differences in Child Rearing

To study cultural differences in child-rearing practices, 38 middle-class immigrant Chinese mothers and 38 middle-class Caucasian American mothers of 3- to 8-year-old children completed the Parenting Dimensions Inventory (PDI) and the Parenting Goals Questionnaire (PGQ). Comparison of the PDI scale scores revealed differences on all but the reasoning dimension. Caucasian American mothers scored higher on sensitivity, consistency, nonrestrictiveness, nurturance, and rule setting, whereas immigrant Chinese mothers scored higher on physical punishment and yelling at the child. Examination of the parenting goals revealed no cultural main effect, however, a main effect was found for child's age. Both immigrant Chinese and Caucasian American mothers place more emphasis on manners, school-related skills, and emotional adjustment during the early elementary school years (6 to 8 years of age) than during the preschool years (3 to 5 years of age). Results related to terns of the need for immigrant Chinese to maintain ties to their culture of origin and to accommodate to the socialization practices of the host culture.

Diet, growth and cultural food habits in Chinese-American infants.

This study was composed of one hundred Chinese-American mothers and infants in the Chinatown district of San Francisco. The mothers were interviewed with regard to infants' dietary intakes and past dietary patterns, infant health, maternal pre-natal history and diet, cultural habits, and socio-economic status. Infants' growth patterns were recorded and compared to those of American and Chinese babies. Their growth patterns were noted to be dissimilar to both American and Chinese growth patterns, but to be very similar to infant growth patterns in underdeveloped countries. The cultural influences on the dietary intakes were commented upon.

The Observation of Anglo-, Mexican-, and Chinese-American Mothers Teaching Their Young Sons

STEWARD, MARGARET, and STEWARD, DAVID. The Observation of Anglo-, Mexicanand ChineseAmerican Mothers Teaching Their Young Sons. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 329-337. Parents were observed teaching preschool-age children a sorting and a motor-skill game. 6 mothers and their own 3-year-old sons from 7 ethnic groups participated: middle-class Anglo-American (AAm), lower-class Anglo-American (AA1), English-speaking Mexican-American (MAe), bilingual Mexican-American (MAb), Spanish-Speaking Mexican-American (MA,), Englishspeaking Chinese-American (CAe), and Chinese-speaking Chinese-American (CA). Interaction was videotaped. Coders were selected from each ethnic group. Data were coded using a parent interaction code which analyzed programmatic variables: total time, input, and pacing; and' teaching-loop variables: alert, format, child response, and feedback. The single best predictor of maternal teaching, or child response, was ethnicity. Children in this study experienced different learning environments which may result in different skills and expectations brought by them into the classroom.