Chinese American Mothers Research Articles

All in the family: The complementary protective roles of spousal and other family support for Chinese immigrant mothers' life satisfaction over time.

The demand-resources model of stress posits that parenting tasks and expectations of mothers that exceed their resources are likely to tax their psychological well-being. Social and instrumental support from spouse or family may help alleviate the negative effects of parenting stress on mothers' psychological well-being. However, parenting stress and its impact have been less studied among immigrant mothers. Moreover, the sources of family support (i.e., spousal and other family members) might interactively affect mothers' well-being in the face of parenting stress. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine whether support from the spouse and other family members jointly buffers against the long-term psychological effects of parenting stress on Chinese immigrant mothers' life satisfaction. Data were collected from 273 Chinese American mothers at two time points separated by 6 months. A three-way interaction was conducted to examine the complementary protective effect of perceived support mothers received from their spouses and their other family members combined. Results showed that after controlling for the covariates, parenting stress was only longitudinally associated with changes in maternal life satisfaction when support from both spouse and other family members was low. Our findings highlight the complementary protective effects of spousal support and nonspouse family members' support in alleviating parenting stress of mothers and its adverse impact on lowering mothers' life satisfaction 6 months later. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Risk and protective processes in the link between racial discrimination and Chinese American mothers' psychologically controlling parenting.

Racial-ethnic minority parents' experiences with racial discrimination may function as a contextual stressor that negatively impacts psychological functioning to shape less effective parenting practices, including the use of more psychological control. Moreover, various factors can enhance or diminish psychological functioning in the face of racial discrimination. Accordingly, we examined the associations between Chinese American mothers' experiences of racial discrimination and three subdimensions of psychologically controlling parenting by considering the mediating roles of negative (depressive symptoms) and positive (psychological well-being) psychological functioning and the moderating role of maternal acculturation toward the mainstream culture (AMC) as a protective factor. Participants comprised 226 Chinese American mothers of preschoolers (Mage = 37.65; SDage = 4.39). Two separate moderated-mediation models with depressive symptoms or psychological well-being as mediators were tested using maximum-likelihood estimation. Findings revealed significant direct positive associations between racial discrimination and all three subdimensions of psychological control (love withdrawal, guilt induction, and shaming practices), as well as indirect associations through depressive symptoms but not psychological well-being. Importantly, the indirect associations were further moderated by maternal AMC. Results illustrate the importance of incorporating the contextual stressor of perceived racial discrimination in parenting determinant models and examining specific and nuanced processes in understanding the role of psychological adjustment. Support for Chinese American mothers' engagement in and access to various resources in the mainstream cultural context may help alleviate the adverse impact of racial discrimination on mothers' psychological health and ultimately on their negative parenting behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal pathways linking racial discrimination and Chinese American mothers' parenting.

Racial discrimination is a salient and chronic stressor for ethnic minority parents that can negatively impact their parenting. The present study used a short-term longitudinal design to examine the link between Chinese American mothers' stressful experiences of racial discrimination and their authoritarian parenting practices, the mediating role of mothers' depressive symptoms, and the moderating role of their behavioral acculturation toward American and Chinese cultures in these associations (i.e., behavioral participation in the American culture and behavioral maintenance of Chinese culture). Participants were 143 first-generation Chinese American mothers (Mage = 38.0 years) with preschool-age children (Mage = 4.6 years; 50% girls). Mothers reported their racial discrimination stress, depressive symptoms, American and Chinese behavioral acculturation, and authoritarian parenting across two time points over a 6-month interval. A moderated mediation model was conducted using structural equation modeling to test the hypothesized associations. Chinese American mothers' depressive symptoms mediated the association between racial discrimination stress and authoritarian parenting. The path between racial discrimination stress and depressive symptoms and the indirect effect of racial discrimination stress on authoritarian parenting were buffered by mothers' behavioral acculturation toward American culture and exacerbated by their behavioral acculturation toward Chinese culture. This study provides the first longitudinal evidence linking Chinese American mothers' experiences of racial discrimination and their negative parenting over time as well as mediating and moderating factors underlying this process. Our findings highlight the need for systemic efforts addressing racial inequalities and fostering positive development in Asian Americans and other marginalized families. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Parental Stress and Chinese American Preschoolers' Adjustment: The Mediating Role of Parenting.

Family contexts, such as parental stress and parenting practices, play critical roles in preschoolers' adjustment. However, these processes have been understudied in Chinese American families. The present study examined the associations between Chinese American mothers' experiences of two types of stress (i.e., general/contextual stress and parenting stress) and their preschoolers' socio-emotional and behavioral adjustment problems; in addition, the mediating roles of maternal psychologically controlling parenting and maternal warmth in these associations were assessed. Participants included 207 first-generation Chinese American mothers (Mage = 37.78 years, SDage = 4.36) and their 3- to 6-year-old children (Mage = 4.50 years, SDage = 0.90; 52% boys). Mothers reported on their levels of stress, psychologically controlling parenting, and warmth practices; teachers reported on child adjustment in the school setting. The results revealed that higher levels of general/contextual stress and parenting stress were each uniquely associated with more maternal psychologically controlling parenting practices, which in turn was associated with fewer socio-emotional and behavioral adjustment problems in children. Our findings can inform parenting intervention programs designed to improve Chinese American preschoolers' adjustment.

Infant Feeding Practices and Social Support Networks Among Immigrant Chinese American Mothers With Economic Disadvantage in New York City.

Maternal social support promotes healthy infant feeding practices, which influence healthy growth and development. Less is known about how the interplay of social support networks and multicultural health beliefs may influence infant feeding practices, particularly among immigrant Chinese American mothers with economic disadvantage and low breastfeeding rates. To explore the role of social support networks in the development of infant feeding practices in immigrant Chinese American mothers with infants. This was a prospective, cross-sectional qualitative study where we conducted semi-structured interviews in Mandarin, Cantonese, or English with Chinese American mothers of infants (N = 25) at a federally qualified health center in the Sunset Park neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. Data were analyzed by a multicultural, multidisciplinary team using qualitative thematic analysis and the constant comparative method to identify and iteratively refine emerging codes. Three themes emerged describing how broad transnational communities and close family and friends influence maternal-infant feeding practices: (1) Gathering and processing infant feeding information from broad transnational resources (i.e., from both the mother's country of residence and the mother's country of origin); (2) aligning maternal feeding attitudes with cultural health beliefs of local social networks; and (3) gaining confidence with transactional maternal-infant feeding interactions. Strategies to promote healthy infant feeding should consider how family supports and culturally-relevant coaching can help align multilevel transnational social networks with healthy infant feeding practices.

An examination of parents’ perceptions of developmental disability, social support, and health outcomes among Chinese American parents of children with developmental disabilities

Asian immigrant parents raising children with developmental disabilities experience frustration, stress, social isolation, and poor health outcomes. Based on data collected from 55 Chinese American parents of children with developmental disabilities, this study examined the relationships between individual characteristics, parents’ perceptions of developmental disability, social support, severity of disability, and parents’ self-reported physical health and depressive symptoms. The findings showed that Chinese American parents exhibited different pathways for better health outcomes. Overall social support, specific support from family and friends/co-workers, and community involvement were significant correlates of maternal self-reported physical health and depressive symptoms. Fear of stigmatization was significantly and positively associated with maternal depressive symptoms. Similarly, education and employment status correlated with paternal self-reported physical health and depressive symptoms. The ages of parents and their children were found to be negatively correlated with paternal depressive symptoms. The child’s disability severity level was not associated with parents’ self-reported physical health and depressive symptoms. The findings also confirmed that parents’ self-reported physical health status was significantly and negatively associated with their own depressive symptoms. Chinese American mothers experienced poor physical health and greater depressive symptoms compared to Chinese American fathers. The study’s clinical implications and limitations are discussed.

Mother-Child Reminiscing About Emotionally Negative Events and Children's Long-Term Mental Health.

The present study examined the longitudinal relation between mother–child reminiscing of emotionally negative events and children’s mental health. European-American and Chinese-American mothers discussed with their 4.5-year-old children an event that was emotionally negative to the child. At age 7, children’s mental health was assessed, including measures for externalizing problems, internalizing problems, negative social self (an Asian-salient dimension of depression), behavioral problems, and socially adaptive behavior. Independent of culture, maternal reference to negative emotional terms was related to fewer externalizing, internalizing, and behavior problems in children. Maternal attribution of emotions to children was associated with lower negative social self in children. Maternal explanation of children’s emotions was linked to fewer externalizing problems and lower negative social self in children, and maternal reconfirmation of the explanations was related to fewer externalizing and behavioral problems in children. In contrast, maternal attribution of emotions to other people was associated with more externalizing problems and higher negative social self in children of both cultures. Some important cultural differences emerged. Chinese-American mothers’ mention of negative emotional terms was linked to lower negative social self in children, and Chinese-American mothers’ reconfirmation of explanation was related to more socially adaptive behaviors in children. No such relations were found in the European-American sample. The findings underscore the importance of family emotional reminiscing for children’s long-term well-being and the role of culture in shaping the process.

Material Hardship and Stress from COVID-19 in Immigrant Chinese American Families with Infants.

Material hardship and stress, associated with poor infant outcomes, increased during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic. Chinese American families were vulnerable to racism-driven disparities. Little is known about maternal perceptions of pandemic impacts on their infants, family, and community. Purposive sampling of low-income Chinese American mothers (n = 25) with infants (1–15 months). Semi-structured qualitative interviews conducted in Mandarin, Cantonese, or English were audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated. Transcripts coded using applied thematic analysis in an iterative process of textual analysis until thematic saturation. Three themes emerged: (1) Heightened family hardship included financial strain, disruption of transnational childcare, experiences of racism; (2) Altered infant routines/developmental consequences included using protective equipment on infants, concerns about infant socio-emotional development; (3) Coping strategies included stockpiling essentials, adapting family diets. Strategies to mitigate disparities include expanding social needs screening, correcting misinformation, strengthening support networks, and including low-income Chinese Americans in these efforts.

Breastfeeding but not Exclusively: Exploration of Chinese American Mothers' Infant Feeding Practices.

Previous qualitative researchers have shown that Chinese American mothers experienced high rates of suboptimal breastfeeding, especially early introduction of other foods before the recommended 6-month period of exclusive breastfeeding. (1) To explore attitudes that Chinese American mothers have about the meaning and practice of exclusive breastfeeding; (2) to evaluate the extent of family pressure and support to maintain exclusive breastfeeding; and (3) to examine the influence of breastfeeding self-efficacy and the intention to continue exclusive breastfeeding. Guided by the theory of planned behavior, this descriptive cross-sectional prospective online survey was conducted with Chinese American breastfeeding mothers (N = 401). Participants' attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control for exclusive breastfeeding behaviors were measured. The M (SD) age of participants was 29.14 (SD = 6.90). Just over 50% reported receiving family support for exclusive breastfeeding. While participants had positive attitudes about exclusive breastfeeding and the value of colostrum, 64% (n = 257) had already introduced foods other than mother's own milk before their infant was 6-months old. Participants also expressed concern that their infants did not receive enough nutrition from exclusive mother's milk. Participants with more than one child had significantly greater intention to continue exclusive breastfeeding compared to participants with only one child. Perception of approval by others for exclusive breastfeeding and breastfeeding self-efficacy were significantly related to behavioral intention to continue exclusive breastfeeding. Suboptimal infant feeding is a problem for Chinese American women and may also be a problem for mothers in other ethnic groups. We found a lack of adherence with standard recommendations for sustaining 6-months of exclusive breastfeeding.

Mothers’ Gender Beliefs Matter for Adolescents’ Academic Achievement and Engagement: An Examination of Ethnically Diverse U.S. Mothers and Adolescents

We examined mothers’ beliefs about gender-typed values and activities and their associations with the academic skills (i.e., math and reading/language arts) and engagement (i.e., emotional engagement in school) of their adolescent children (13–15 years-old) in a U.S. sample of Black, Chinese American, Latinx, and White families (n = 158). Mothers were more likely to endorse gender-typed activities (e.g., “Boys shouldn’t play with dolls”) than gender-typed values (e.g., “Men should make the important decisions in the family”). We found that Chinese American and Latina mothers endorsed more traditional gender-typed beliefs than Black mothers, who endorsed more traditional beliefs than White mothers. Adjusting for race/ethnicity and prior academic outcomes, mothers’ endorsement of gender-typed values was associated with lower emotional engagement in school for male adolescents. In addition, adjusting for race/ethnicity and prior academic outcomes, mothers’ endorsement of gender-typed activities was associated with lower math grades for female adolescents, lower emotional engagement in school for young men, and higher emotional engagement in school for young women. Mothers’ endorsement of gender-typed values and activities was not associated with reading/language arts grades for either male or female adolescents. Our findings have important implications for understanding the processes through which mothers’ gender attitudes may be conveyed and enacted in adolescents’ behavior within the school setting.

Longitudinal effects of maternal love withdrawal and guilt induction on Chinese American preschoolers' bullying aggressive behavior.

Bullying has been understudied among preschool children, especially those from Chinese American families. Previous research has also neglected the dimensional effects of psychological control on child bullying development. This study examined two psychological control dimensions, love withdrawal and guilt induction, and their effects on children's bullying aggressive behavior using a longitudinal design. Participants were first-generation Chinese American mothers (N = 133; mean age [Mage] = 37.82) and their preschool children (Mage = 4.48). Chinese immigrant mothers reported their psychologically controlling parenting and teachers rated children's bullying aggressive behaviors in the school setting. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to establish the psychometric properties and cross-wave measurement equivalence of the study constructs. Cross-lagged structural equation modeling analysis indicated that maternal love withdrawal prospectively predicted more bullying aggressive behavior, whereas guilt induction predicted less bullying aggressive behavior in children 6 months later. These results held after controlling for the initial level of children's problem behaviors and demographic variables (child age, gender, and maternal education). For child effects, child bullying aggressive behavior predicted more maternal guilt induction over time but not love withdrawal. Our findings highlight the importance of construct specificity and cultural context in understanding associations between parenting and child development.

Heterogeneity of Hepatitis B Infection Among Pregnant Asian American and Pacific Islander Women

Perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus among Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders is a key driver of racial health disparities in liver cancer and mortality in the U.S. This study documents the prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection among pregnant women across racial/ethnic groups and among Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders to assess the need for intervention, and then identifies the individual correlates of hepatitis B virus infection among Asian American and Pacific Islander pregnant women. Using the 2014-2015U.S. birth rate population data, this study estimates a series of logistic regression models to examine the associations between individual-level correlates and hepatitis B virus infection among Asian American and Pacific Islanders pregnant women. Data were analyzed in July 2017. Among Asian American and Pacific Islander pregnant women, Chinese American mothers are ten times more likely to experience hepatitis B virus infection than are Asian Indian and Japanese American mothers. Foreign-born mothers are significantly more likely to experience hepatitis B virus infection during pregnancy than those of their U.S.-born counterparts. Maternal SES characteristics are important correlates of hepatitis B virus infection among pregnant women. Studies must disaggregate the pan-ethnic Asian American and Pacific Islander category to examine the health and health disparities of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders. Given the heterogeneity of hepatitis B virus infection prevalence among Asian American and Pacific Islander pregnant women, the effectiveness of prevention and intervention programs depends on careful consideration of ethnicity in conjunction with group-specific factors.

Child inhibitory control and maternal acculturation moderate effects of maternal parenting on Chinese American children's adjustment.

The goals of this study were to examine: (a) bidirectional associations between maternal parenting (physical punishment and guilt induction) and Chinese American preschool children's psychosocial adjustment and (b) the role of maternal cultural orientation and child temperament in moderating parenting effects. Participants were Chinese American mothers and children (N = 163, Mage = 4.56, 53% boys). Mothers reported on their parenting practices at both Wave 1 (W1) and Wave 2 (W2) and their cultural orientations and children's inhibitory control at W1. Teachers rated children's prosocial, internalizing, and externalizing behaviors at both W1 and W2. A Bayesian approach to path analysis was utilized to investigate how parenting, child inhibitory control, and maternal cultural orientations work together to predict the development of children's prosociality and psychosocial problems. Results showed that for Chinese immigrant mothers who were highly acculturated toward the American culture and for children with low levels of inhibitory control, maternal use of physical punishment predicted more externalizing problems in children. Child inhibitory control and maternal enculturation were directly associated with less W2 child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Moreover, physical punishment predicted more internalizing behavior, whereas guilt induction predicted less child internalizing behavior. Maternal guilt induction also prospectively predicted more prosocial behavior but only for children with low levels of inhibitory control. Finally, only one child effect was significant: More W1 internalizing behavior predicted less W2 physical punishment. These effects held after controlling for temporal stabilities of the constructs and demographic covariates. Findings are discussed within the cultural context of the study. (PsycINFO Database Record

Intergenerational Transmission of Educational Attitudes in Chinese American Families: Interplay of Socioeconomic Status and Acculturation.

This longitudinal study examined the influence of parents' educational attitudes on adolescents' educational attitudes and identified antecedents (i.e., parent education, family income, and parent acculturation), consequences (i.e., academic achievement and engagement), and a potential moderator (i.e., adolescent acculturation) of the transmission process. The sample was 444 Chinese American mothers, fathers, and adolescents (12-15 at W1). Using path analysis, this study found significant two-way interactions among parent education, income, and acculturation in predicting parents' concurrent positive educational attitudes, which, in turn, predicted adolescents' attitudes at W2. The latter link was further moderated by W1 and W2 adolescent acculturation for mother-adolescent and father-adolescent dyads. Adolescents' positive educational attitudes at W2, in turn, were positively associated with their concurrent academic achievement and engagement.

Factors Contributing to Low Breastfeeding Rates in Chinese-American Mothers

Factors Contributing to Low Breastfeeding Rates in Chinese-American Mothers

Differentiating physical discipline from abuse: Q findings from Chinese American mothers and pediatric nurses

The perception and use of physical discipline (PD) is culture-based, and the differentiation between PD and abuse is subjective and complex. The purpose of this study was to understand how Chinese American mothers and one group of mandated reporters of child abuse (i.e. pediatric nurses) differentiate PD from abuse. Using Q-methodology, 3 viewpoints on PD and abuse differentiation were uncovered from a sample of 35 Chinese American mothers and 48 pediatric nurses. Although there was wide consensus on the most acceptable and most unacceptable parent discipline behaviors across the 3 views, the acceptability of punishments differed by their potential to inflict injury, pain, or incite fear and uncertainty. This was the first study to examine PD and abuse differentiation based on 5 definable domains of PD (i.e. specific behavior, intention, delivery, outcome, and pattern of use). Findings point to important nuances in how some mothers and nurses differentiate abuse from acceptable discipline, and the potential for using Q-methodology for exploring PD and abuse differentiations across diverse cultural, social, and professional groups.

Confirming the multidimensionality of psychologically controlling parenting among Chinese-American mothers

Despite the theoretical conceptualization of parental psychological control as a multidimensional construct, the majority of previous studies have examined psychological control as a unidimensional scale. Moreover, the conceptualization of shaming and its associations with love withdrawal and guilt induction are unclear. The current study aimed to fill these gaps by evaluating the latent factor structure underlying 18 items from Olsen et al. (2002) that were conceptually relevant to love withdrawal, guilt induction, and shaming practices in a sample of 169 mothers of Chinese-American preschoolers. A multidimensional three-factor model and bi-factor model were specified based on our formulated operational definitions for the three dimensions of psychological control. Both models were found to be superior to the unidimensional model. In addition, results from the bi-factor model and an additional second-order factor model indicated that psychological control is essentially empirically isomorphic with guilt induction. Although love withdrawal and shaming factors were also fairly strong indicators of psychological control, each exhibited important additional unique variability and mutual distinctiveness. Implications for the conceptualization of love withdrawal, guilt induction, and shaming as well as directions for future studies are discussed.

Influence of Cultural Beliefs on Infant Feeding, Postpartum and Childcare Practices among Chinese-American Mothers in New York City.

As one of the fastest growing communities in the United States, Chinese-Americans receive relatively little research attention on their rates of breastfeeding versus formula feeding, and what factors influence that choice. This research aims to examine the influence of elders and cultural beliefs on postpartum, infant feeding, and childcare practices. Semi-structured interviews with 22 recently postpartum mothers who met the recruiting criteria were conducted between July 2012 and February 2013. The traditional postpartum practice, zuo yuezi, presented negative physical and emotional outcomes and maternal reporting of delay in lactation. Early introduction of solids for traditional reasons was reported. The support from husbands and elders were necessary for breastfeeding success, while some mothers had to first negotiate with elders for breastfeeding. The practice of sending infants back to China to be taken care of by extended families presented cultural implications related to grandparents' involvement in raising grandchildren. With the respect and appreciation for elders and traditions, it is likely that Chinese mothers negotiate between cultural traditions and societal expectation in the western home.

Maternal Regulating Behaviors Through Face-to-Face Play in First- and Second-Generation Chinese American and European American Mothers of Infants

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of culture on maternal socioemotional behaviors (affect and vocalization) following a socially stressful situation between mothers and infants. Participants included 47 Chinese American and 54 European American mothers who took part in the double Face-to-Face Still-Face paradigm with their 16-week-old infants. Overall, the pattern of results suggests that cultural and acculturative differences are enhanced in situations that are socially stressful as emotion displays may be more salient under these conditions. Furthermore, patterns of maternal behaviors may not be consistent in the direction expected from a unidimensional conceptualization of acculturation.

Parenting satisfaction at midlife among European- and Chinese-American mothers with a college-enrolled child.

Parenting satisfaction at midlife among European- and Chinese-American mothers with a college-enrolled child.