War In China Research Articles

Entangled in Regional Geopolitics - Tibetans in the Special Frontier Force of India

The Special Frontier Force (S.F.F.) was raised by the Intelligence Bureau of India in the immediate aftermath of the Indo China war of 1962. Initially composed of Tibetan youths, it was known as the Establishment 22. Records indicate that it was raised by India in coordination with US intelligence Agency, the C.I.A. and with full endorsement of Washington. The force was trained by C.I.A., among other things to collect intelligence from across India’s China border with the help of electronic devices. The C.I.A. patronage was gradually withdrawn after 1964. In India, the force was commissioned to action in Chittagong Hill tracts in 1971, on the eve of Indo Pakistan War over Bangladesh issue. Later they took part in Operation Bluestar in Punjab and fought in the war of Kargil in 1999. Their activities and operations had so far been kept under total secret. Recently they were employed by the Government of India in the border faceoff with China in Ladakh in August 2020. The death of Nyima Tenzin of S.S.F. turned the spotlight on them and their sacrifice was highlighted. The importance of the S.F.F. in India’s security set up has to be understood in the context of the regional geopolitics and India’s Tibet policy. The force was raised in the era of Cold war when the C.I.A. was helping the Tibetan resistant warriors, the Chushi Gandruk, fighting from Mustang in Nepal. India, too was ready to help them even if covertly, to get back Tibet’s political status. Raising of the force gave not only a job opportunity to the Tibetan refugee youths but served their nationalist aspirations and suited India’s need of a trained mountain force post 1962 to combat China in the Himalayan region. But following the withdrawal of the C.I.A., Sino US rapprochement in the 1970s and the subsequent end of the Cold War, the priorities changed in the US and India’s policy towards China also went through several phases. The recent deterioration of relations with China has once again brought Tibetan issue to the limelight. India’s recognition of the S.F.F. actions in the war indicates how India, in order to put pressure on China is giving space to the Tibetan CTA (The Government in Exile, in India) and the Tibetans in S.F.F. The Tibetans have not been able to achieve independence but they are now being used in the political rivalry of the two regional powers.

The Global in the Local: A Century of War, Commerce, and Technology in China

The Global in the Local: A Century of War, Commerce, and Technology in China

What the Writer Found There: David Peace's Occupied City

Abstract This essay seeks to understand the writing strategies and structures that David Peace uses in Occupied City, the second novel of his Tokyo Trilogy set in the American occupation period (1945–52). Focusing on the (still unsolved) historical crime of the Teikoku Bank mass murders of 1948 and its linkages to the Japanese army's Unit 731 wartime experiments with plague and germ warfare in China—war crimes that were covered up by the Americans—Peace sustains Artaud's notions of plague and theater as he uses spirit mediumship within implicit textual figurations of the Rashōmon complex (as medieval tale, as modernist literary icon Akutagawa Ryūnosuke's retelling, and Akira Kurosawa's occupation-era filmic allegory) to stage multiple haunted and contesting testimonies about these unjustly repressed and unresolved crimes of war and postwar.

High-resolution organic and black carbon records in the South Yellow Sea over the last century

The mud depositional area ("mud area") of the South Yellow Sea serves as a prominent carbon sink within the Eastern Continental Shelf of China, offering crucial insights into human activities and climate fluctuations and its relationship with carbon cycle. This study investigates variations in total organic carbon (TOC) and black carbon (BC) concentrations in South Yellow Sea sediments. By combining 210Pb isotope analysis with grain-size profiling, the study distinguishes organic carbon origins, revealing the complex interplay between human activities and environmental shifts since the Industrial Revolution. The reasons for discrepancies between TOC and BC contents are analyzed, yielding the following results: (1) Sediment core QY-2 predominantly contains terrestrial-sourced organic carbon, primarily derived from the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. (2) Temporal fluctuations of BC in core QY-2 show distinct trends, periodic responses to human activities, particularly peaks in 1937 and 1945, linked to large-scale wars in China. (3) Relaxed carbon emission regulations in China, coupled with industrial growth spurred by the “reform and opening up” policy, led to a continuous rise in BC content from the mid-1960s to the 1980s, peaking in 1980. Subsequently, reduced BC values during the 1990s correlated with emission control policies and the shift from highly polluting domestic coal stoves to cleaner alternatives like liquefied petroleum gas or natural gas stoves. (4) BC content was influenced by the East Asian monsoon and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), with higher BC accumulation rates occurring in summer and depletion in winter. (5) Interestingly, changes in BC and TOC content exhibited a negative correlation. While grain size and material sources minimally influenced these discrepancies, the primary driver lay in the water's redox environment, impacting other TOC components and thereby causing variations in both TOC and BC content. This study of black carbon sources to sinks in the South Yellow Sea Mud Area holds significant implications for the broader Yellow Sea sedimentary system and provides support for understanding carbon cycle and marine environments.

Chongqing Transit: Central European Jewish Refugees in China’s Wartime Capital and Interior*

While most central European Jewish refugees who transited through China during the Second World War lived in Shanghai, some found refuge in other Chinese cities. This article is a microhistory of two German-speaking refugee families, the Karfunkels and the Gottliebs, who spent the war in China’s interior—in the Nationalist wartime capital of Chongqing, amongst other locales. During the war, the relocation of the Nationalist seat of government to Chongqing and the arrival of Allied military missions in inner China led to great demographic upheaval in the city. On the margins of both foreign and Chinese society, the Karfunkels and the Gottliebs found themselves caught up in a significant population shift and a number of social changes. As Japan’s assault on China worsened, the families’ medical, mechanical, and technical expertise was increasingly in demand, elevating their position in Chongqing society. This article investigates the ways that the progression of the Second World War changed Jewish refugee individuals’ circumstances in China’s interior.

Rebellion in Northern Manchuria During the Third Revolutionary War in China and Its Causes

Rebellion in Northern Manchuria During the Third Revolutionary War in China and Its Causes

The Differences Between Wars in Ancient China and Ancient Greece--The Analysis Based on The Book of Songs and Ancient Greek Mythology

This paper aims to analyze the different views of war in ancient China and ancient Greece, based on The Book of Songs and Ancient Greek Mythology. The comparisons are divided into three parts: the distinction of background, views in The Book of Songs, and attitudes towards war in Ancient Greek Mythology, and finally conclusion will be drawn. In the first part, the geography factors will be given, and then the analyses of lifestyles, personalities and beliefs that are influenced or shaped by the natural environment follow, also including the comparisons. The second part is on the views of war in The Book of Songs where four typical examples are given which represent four genres that indicate four different attitudes towards war in ancient China, also with analyses. Part three is based on Ancient Greek Mythology, the Trojan War especially, which fully exemplifies the western view of war. The analyses of the culture of offensive war and individual heroism follow. Finally, in the last part, some suggestions for nowadays diplomacy will be given based on the analyses and comparisons above. Also, the culture of defensive war and patriotism, as the two most distinct and significant beliefs, are worth highlighting separately, for they still deeply affect nowadays Chinese.

The Global in the Local: A Century of War, Commerce, and Technology in China, written by Xin Zhang

The Global in the Local: A Century of War, Commerce, and Technology in China, written by Xin Zhang

Media analysis of the text on the example of Chinese strategy of information warfare

The topic of media analysis of information wars in the context of the Chinese issue is of academic interest, both for understanding current events and for improving information analysis methods and media strategies. The article assesses the influence of media on China's behavior in the information war, characterizes the challenges associated with media analysis in China's information war, describes methods and metrics for analyzing media content about the information war in China. Information technologies at the current level of development create broad opportunities for managing political conflicts both on the scale of one state and at the regional level. These technologies, which are actively used in information wars, have a number of advantages over traditional means of struggle due to their massive impact on the moral and psychological state of the population of the enemy country or individual parties, movements and political associations. The article uses a discourse analysis of the media text, identifies expressive linguistic means, the semantic meaning of words and expressions, and the communicative orientation of the text. The empirical basis of the research is the article "Celestial Truth: who and why is waging an information war with the PRC". The main conclusion of the study is that modern technologies and social media have become a powerful tool for influencing public opinion and shaping the perspective of events. The information war in China has a global impact, attracting the attention of the international community. Global media and international platforms actively monitor and cover events in the region, which can influence the perception of the conflict beyond its borders. The impact of the information war has a significant impact on public opinion. There is the use of various methods, including fake news, disinformation, to influence public sentiment and views. The Chinese concept of network warfare opens up further prospects and opportunities for the Chinese leadership and military specialists to work on the creation and implementation of the latest technology samples.

US Policy Dilemmas in the Indo-Pacific

The Biden Administration in the United States is confronted with an acute dilemma in dealing with the rise of China as an assertive, aggressive and ambitious power in the global order. It seeks to preserve the economic benefits of maintaining good relations with China, yet is uncomfortable with the spread of Chinese influence across the world. This policy dilemma is not new for the US foreign policymakers and there are several instances of Washington’s dilemma in dealing with China in the post-World War II period. As the existing superpower United States and aspiring superpower China struggle to manage their relationship, the dilemmas faced by the US are likely to continue deep into the future. The complex interdependence marked by trade and investment relations, complex geopolitical imperatives and the need to prevent conflict escalation makes it difficult for Washington and Beijing to escape policy dilemmas.

Karma as a Means of Wartime Political Mobilization: A Reading of Chinese Buddhists’ Response to the Second Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1945

The concept of karma is of great significance for scholars of modern China seeking to comprehend the impact of Buddhism on the Second Sino-Japanese War. This paper explores the sociopolitical function of karma within China’s wartime society and its profound implications for Nationalist politics. It examines how karma was articulated by wartime Chinese Buddhists as a means of Nationalist mobilization for China's war effort. Moreover, this paper situates the discourse on karma within the framework of modern nationalism by comparing the sociopolitical utilization of karma by Chinese and Japanese Buddhists during the war. As such, it reveals that the divergent interpretations of karma by Buddhists in the two nation-states had enduring and far-reaching consequences on their respective societies.

The U.S. Secret War in China

The U.S. Secret War in China

Bridging Differences and Promoting Coordination The Narrative Strategy of External Communication in "Chinese Epidemic Chronicles"

The English documentary "China's War Against the Epidemic" produced by China International Television showcases China's most authentic anti epidemic journey, conveys China's anti epidemic spirit, and shapes a positive national image to the world through storytelling expression. As a successful paradigm for external communication, exploring the narrative strategy of "China's Epidemic Chronicles" has important complementary value for domestic documentaries to "go global" and accelerate the construction of Chinese discourse and narrative system.

The Qingdao Pattern and U.S.-Chinese Crisis Management: The KMT, the CCP, and the U.S. Marines in Qingdao during the Chinese Civil War (1945–1949)

Abstract After the Second World War ended in 1945, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) tried to seize Qingdao, a major port city on the Shandong Peninsula. The landing of U.S. Marines there foiled the CCP's attempt. With the support of the Kuomintang (KMT)—the CCP's main enemy—the U.S. Marines stayed in Qingdao throughout the civil war in China, from late 1945 to mid-1949. Drawing on archival sources from China, the United States, the former Soviet Union, Great Britain, and Japan, this article explores CCP-KMT-U.S. interactions regarding the presence of U.S. Marines in Qingdao. The KMT-CCP civil war influenced—and was influenced by—the presence of the Marines in Qingdao. The KMT government depended on the U.S. Marines for security, whereas the CCP, opposing the U.S. presence, took a tough propaganda stance but remained cautious in its actions. The United States ultimately decided to withdraw the Marines to avoid overt involvement in the Chinese civil war. This type of triangular engagement influenced the future pattern of Cold War confrontations among the three parties.

Analysis of Integrating the Yan'an Spirit into University Education in China's New Era

The Yan'an Spirit is a unique ideological and cultural phenomenon that emerged during the period of China's War of Resistance against Japan. It represents the experience summary and theoretical innovation of the Chinese nation in the Yan'an area. The Yan'an Spirit is an important part of China's spiritual heritage with rich connotations. It not only enabled the Chinese nation to defeat the Japanese invaders in conjunction with the international community during World War II, but also helped to establish a more confident national identity, providing great impetus for China's modernization. Today, university education in China has the mission of cultivating students. Integrating the Yan'an Spirit into university education can help college students strengthen their ideals and beliefs, and persist in seeking truth from facts. Therefore, in the new era, it is necessary to combine the characteristics of China's university education with the actual situation of universities' own development, and continually explore innovative paths to integrate the Yan'an Spirit into university education in China.

Josh Hawley meets Igor Stravinsky: A leadership symphony

In this essay I explore two leaders: the composer Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) and United States of America Senator Joshua Hawley (b. 1979). These two offer an opportunity to re-describe leadership as an acoustic art thereby enriching the field beyond its current ocular orientation. Through this discussion, then, I invite readers into the world of music. The year 2021 marked the 50th anniversary of Stravinsky’s death, and in that same year, Hawley came to international fame through the 6 January invasion of the United States Capitol building by people protesting the confirmation of Joe Biden as the 46th President. I offer a polyphonic analysis of Hawley and Stravinsky by operationalizing the music construct of tonal pairing which allows two tonalities to play together. I conclude the essay by noting the ubiquity of Manicheanism, a belief system that affords leaders an ability to characterize opponents as being evil. I mitigate this deleterious system by proposing that symphonic leadership calls for diversity and difference. Leadership as an acoustic art has implications for understanding the current war in Ukraine and China’s role on the international stage, including her relationship with the United States of America.

Nepal-China Military Relation

Any military relation with government to government or International or Regional Organizations would be the part of National Diplomacy and interests. In other words, it is Track Two diplomacy after Track One Diplomacy of the government. Bilateral Military relations consists of those activities of a government which are primarily concerned with its armed forces and development assistances too. The histories of bilateral military relations would be sweet and sour. Accordingly, Nepal-China military realties consists of many confrontations and supports. Nepal-China relation is a milestone in the diplomatic history of Nepal. Diplomatic relation is the combination of economic, trade and transit, cultural, military and many more aspects. Nepal – China (Sino-Nepal) Military Relation also begins since our diplomatic history with China. Any diplomatic movement and strategy directly relate with personal security and National security. Nepal –China Relations has two folds; Nepal used to have separate diplomatic relations with China and Tibet up to October 1950. So far, China claims that Tibet was its own part always and never an independent. We could find some events in Sino – Nepal Military relation. Which have been written in many documents, books, and journals. However, an exact document, proofs, archives lack to cover Sino-Nepal Military Relation from ancient period onwards. Background of Sino - Nepal relation, Nepal –Tibet Wars, Nepal –China War, are the main aspects to be highlighted. This article would be based on Qualitative research design applying secondary sources and interpretation of data is content analysis as well as based on Bilateral Relation Theory. Finding of the research paper is to create the separate domain as Nepal-China military relation based on military perspective. The limitation of this paper would be the only major bilateral military confrontations after 1744.

Hans Bielenstein on the civil war in Ancient China in 23-36 AD. A review of Hans Bielenstein’s book “The restoration of the Han Dynasty, with prolegomena on the historiography of the Hou Han Shu; Volume II”

Subject of this review is the second volume of fundamental work of american sinologist H. Bielenstein on war for restoration of Han empire (Bielenstein H. The Restoration of the Han Dynasty: The Civil War: II // Bulletin of the Musum of Far Eastern Antiquities,. 1959. Vol. 31 P. 1287). Authors research purpose was reconstruction of the military actions of the civil war in the first century AD in Ancient China. Highlighting the period of civil war in early history of Eastern Han empire became a big step forward in study of history of this empire. This book and other books of H. Bielenstein become classical for the foreign scientists, but it is little known in our country. This review also seeks to determine the nature of the sources (the types of the texts contained within Hou han shu) he used for his research and it is clear, that the majority of these sources are plot-driving narratives, rather than annals.

Marketing The Dead of Antietam: Photographs of Death as a Cultural Commodity

Marketing The Dead of AntietamPhotographs of Death as a Cultural Commodity A. Maggie Hazard (bio) In October 1862 photographer and entrepreneur Mathew Brady launched an exhibition of photographs taken by Alexander Gardner at the Battle of Antietam. The exhibition, held at Brady’s New York City gallery and titled The Dead at Antietam, was the first of its kind in America.1 Among the photographs was Gardner’s Dead of Stonewall Jackson’s Brigade by the Rail Fence on the Hagerstown Pike (Fig. 1). The powerful image presents a startling glimpse of the battle. The contorted bodies of three Confederate soldiers lie next to a rail fence. Two of the three soldiers’ faces are not visible. Their legs flail in various directions, as if barely connected to their torsos. The soldier on the left is so twisted that he appears to be headless, his legs jutting out toward the viewer as his upper body pushes against the fence. His left arm reaches up, frozen in time as if he is reaching for a weapon or raising a hand to beg for assistance. On the right side of the photograph, another soldier is even more knotted. One leg bends as if the man was interrupted while trying to rise, his arm fixed forever in a cradled position against the fence. His head is almost indistinguishable from the foliage into which he has fallen, and his lower leg blends into the figure beside him. He still wears his hat. In the center of the group lies the only soldier whose face we might recognize. The agony of death demonstrated in the soldier’s twisted expression means that any small relief the viewer might [End Page 9] experience in seeing a complete body is short lived, and that agony will remain with the viewer well after they leave the exhibition. Click for larger view View full resolution Fig. 1. Alexander Gardner, Dead of Stonewall Jackson’s Brigade by the Rail Fence on the Hagers town Pike, Battle of Antietam, 1862. (Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Civil War Photographs [LC-B811-559]) Gardner’s photograph was typical for the exhibition but was previously unknown to society. Even more, Brady’s exhibition of these photographs and the sale of them afterward is significant to the way the war was seen and known and to how it is understood even today. The Battle of Antietam resulted in the first sustained photographic rendering and display of the casualties of war, and the exhibition was the public’s first encounter with grisly photographic images of actual battlefield death. Promoted in newspapers like the New York Times, the exhibition, along with the conversion of several photographs into woodcut prints that were published in illustrated journals and photographic images that were advertised for sale to those at home, created a new kind of commodity—a marketing of the dead.2 This new way of visualizing, which captured the bodies of fallen soldiers contorted, maimed, and anything but heroic, was crucial to redefining the way people back home (in the North at least) understood [End Page 10] combat and the death that inevitably accompanied it. Although a few photographs of combat death had been created prior to this moment, they were restricted to far off wars that those in the US did not experience, such as the Second Opium War in China in the 1850s. Photographs of other conflicts, like the Crimean War and the Mexican-American War, did not include images of the dead. This meant that when the photographs from the Battle of Antietam went on view in New York City, citizens were seeing these graphic depictions of the dead for the first time. Not only that, photographs of those earlier conflicts were much more scattered in their scope and, more significantly, were not subject to an aggressive marketing campaign to distribute the photographs to the public in their place of origin (largely Europe).3 It is important to note that all the photographs of fallen combatants from the Civil War that are known to exist are of white soldiers. There are a few reasons for this. The clearest and most obvious of these with regard...

Ying Jia Tan, Recharging China in War and Revolution, 1882–1955. Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press Services 2021

Article Ying Jia Tan, Recharging China in War and Revolution, 1882–1955. Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press Services 2021 was published on February 1, 2023 in the journal Historische Zeitschrift (volume 316, issue 1).