China Labor-force Dynamics Survey Research Articles

Subjective well-being in China: how much does commuting matter?

With rapidly increasing urbanization and motorization in China, the effect of commuting on residents’ subjective well-being (SWB) is likely growing. We used 13,261 individual, 124 city, and 401 neighbourhood samples from the 2014 China Labour-Force Dynamics Survey (CLDS 2014) and applied multilevel mixed-effects ordered probit regressions to investigate the relationship between commuting and SWB. We found huge differences between urban and rural areas in relation to commuting. Urban respondents’ daily average commuting time was 0.56 h while rural respondents’ daily average commuting time was 0.41 h. Further, the daily average commute time for residents living in cities with high urbanization rates (> 70%) was longer than for those living in cities with low urbanization rates (< 70%). The subjective well-being of residents who commute by walking or cycling was significantly lower than that of those who commute by other transportation modes. The regression results indicated that the longer the commute time, the lower the subjective well-being. Among residents who live in rural areas or cities with low urbanization, subjective well-being was more easily affected by commuting time. Commuting time was also found to influence residents’ job satisfaction and family life satisfaction, which in turn influence SWB. China’s current development mode ignores the traffic needs of vulnerable groups. Therefore, future traffic construction should increase its prioritization of these vulnerable transportation groups.

Behavioural risks acquired from internal migration: a nationwide cross-sectional survey

BackgroundRapid urbanisation and economic development in China comes with a huge wave of internal migration. As of 2016, the amount of people who have moved out of their hometown have outnumbered 245 million. The number of people affected by the migration process increases as people stop migrating and return home. In this study, we investigated the effect of migration experience on health risk behaviours according to the migration phases framework. MethodsWe extracted data for participants from the 2014 wave of China Labor-force Dynamic Survey, a national representative survey covering 29 of 31 provinces of China with a multistage stratified sampling method. We explored the difference in behaviour prevalence between different phase groups (non-migrants, the floating migrants, the settled migrants, and the returned migrants) with standard rates and the propensity score matching method (PSM) to control the confounding from the so-called healthy migrant effect. Behaviours considered included smoking, alcohol drinking, and physical exercise. The survey was reviewed and approved by the ethics committee of the Centre for Social Survey, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. FindingsOf all 23 594 participants included in this study, 17 307 were non-migrants, 2155 were floating, 1633 had settled in the destination, and 2499 had returned home. Similar results were obtained from the standardised rates and the PSM model. In the PSM model, smoking prevalence was 9·4% higher in returned migrants (p<0·0001), 5·8% higher in the floating migrants (p<0·0001) and 1·9% higher (p=0·1003) in the settled migrants than in the non-migrants (standardised rate 22·0%). The prevalence of frequent alcohol drinking was higher in the returned (4·0% higher, p=0·0003), the floating (5·9% higher, p<0·0001), and the settled (2·1% higher, p=0·0559) migrants than in non-migrants (standardised rate 15·7%). The prevalence of physical exercise was higher in the returned (0·6% higher, p=0·511), the floating (3·6% higher, p=0·0009), and the settled (9·7% higher, p<0·0001) migrants than in non-migrants (standardised rate 16·3%). InterpretationInternal migration increases several risk behaviours. The returned migrants were most susceptible to risk behaviours such as smoking and drinking while the settled were more likely to have healthier habits than the other migrants. Further health intervention should be tailored to target the migration process and returned migrants. FundingNone.

Urbanization, economic development and health: evidence from China\u2019s labor-force dynamic survey

BackgroundThe frequent outbreak of environmental threats in China has resulted in increased criticism regarding the health effects of China’s urbanization. Urbanization is a double-edged sword with regard to health in China. Although great efforts have been made to investigate the mechanisms through which urbanization influences health, the effect of both economic development and urbanization on health in China is still unclear, and how urbanization-health (or development-health) relationships vary among different income groups remain poorly understood. To bridge these gaps, the present study investigates the impact of both urbanization and economic development on individuals’ self-rated health and its underlying mechanisms in China.MethodsWe use data from the national scale of the 2014 China Labor-force Dynamics Survey to analyze the impact of China’s urbanization and economic development on health. A total of 14,791 individuals were sampled from 401 neighborhoods within 124 prefecture-level cities. Multilevel ordered logistic models were applied.ResultsModel results showed an inverted U-shaped relationship between individuals’ self-rated health and urbanization rates (with a turning point of urbanization rate at 42.0%) and a positive linear relationship between their self-rated health and economic development. Model results also suggested that the urbanization-health relationship was inverted U-shaped for high- and middle-income people (with a turning point of urbanization rate at 0.0% and 49.2%, respectively), and the development-health relationship was inverted U-shaped for high- and low-income people (with turning points of GDP per capita at 93,462 yuan and 71,333 yuan, respectively) and linear for middle-income people.ConclusionThe impact of urbanization and economic development on health in China is complicated. Careful assessments are needed to understand the health impact of China’s rapid urbanization. Social and environmental problems arising from rapid urbanization and economic growth should be addressed. Equitable provision of health services are needed to improve low-income groups’ health in highly urbanized cities.

Association of job burnout with subjective well-being and health status among employees from 29 provinces in China

Objective: To investigate the influence of job burnout on subjective well-being and health status among employees in China. Methods: The data from the 2014 China Labor-force Dynamic Survey were used to analyze the association of job burnout with subjective well-being and health status among 7289 employees aged 18-64 years from 29 provinces in China.Some items from the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey were used to investigate job burnout; subjective well-being assessment included life happiness and degree of satisfaction with living condition; the questions for self-evaluation of health status were used to analyze health status. Results: Of all employees,30.5% had low subjective well-being and 4.7% had poor health status based on self-evaluation. The logistic regression analysis showed that emotional exhaustion(two items), reduced sense of personal accomplishment,and cynicism were risk factors for low subjective well-being(OR=1.07,1.11,1.10,and 1.06,P<0.001),and emotional exhaustion(two items)was a risk factor for poor health status (OR=1.10 and 1.07,P<0.001).Reduced sense of personal accomplishment and cynicism had no significant influence on health status(P>0.05). Conclusion: Emotional exhaustion is a major influencing factor for health status,and reducing job burnout may be an effective method for improving subjective well-being and health status.

China Labor-force Dynamics Survey

The China Labor-force Dynamics Survey (CLDS), launched by Sun Yat-Sen University, is the first national longitudinal social survey targeted at the labor force in China. Using a rotating panel design, the survey is conducted every two years and has accumulated three waves of data now. In this article, we introduce the theoretical background, sample design, and implementation of the survey. We also summarize some scholarly themes which CLDS can be applied to by presenting descriptive statistical results.

What Chinese Workers Value: An Analysis of Job Satisfaction, Job Expectations, and Labour Turnover in China

This study uses data from the 2012 China Labour-Force Dynamics Survey and 2010-2012 China Family Panel Studies to investigate job satisfaction and job expectations, as well as the association between job satisfaction and job turnover by gender among employees aged 16-65. We find not only that job satisfaction levels are relatively low, with only 46% of workers explicitly satisfied, but also that worker expectations differ significantly from what their jobs actually provide. In particular, many jobs are less interesting than expected, which prevents workers from realizing their perceived potential. This expectation gap is thus a strong determinant of job satisfaction. Men and women have similar levels of job satisfaction, yet based on observables, one would expect women's job satisfaction to be lower than it actually is, thereby lending support to the gender-job-satisfaction paradox encountered in Western studies. In contrast to Western research, we find no link between job satisfaction and job change, an observation we attribute to China's unique Confucian-based work ethic.

Association between sociodemographic, psychosocial, lifestyle factors, and self-reported health among migrant laborers in China

BackgroundThere were 245 million migrants in China in 2013, the majority of whom migrated from rural to urban areas. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the association between sociodemographic, psychosocial, and lifestyle factors, and self-reported health (SRH) in Chinese migrant laborers. MethodsThis study was conducted based on data from the China Labor-force Dynamics Survey 2012. SRH was measured in a single item, although there were other risk factors from three different groups: sociodemographic, psychosocial, and lifestyle factors. The associations between these risk factors and SRH were tested using multilevel logistic regression analyses including interaction tests. ResultsAll three groups of factors were explored simultaneously. These factors included age, working hours, marital status, illness, and hospitalization, which were associated with poor SRH, as well as earnings, number of friends, relations with neighbors, trust level, education, and alcohol consumption, which were associated with good SRH. However, there was minimal association found between the two factors of medical insurance and nationality, and SRH. ConclusionOur investigation indicated that there are many factors associated with SRH. In particular, this study undertook a comprehensive investigation of the associations between sociodemographic, psychosocial, lifestyle factors, and SRH in China, the results of which could better inform medical researchers and governments from a Chinese perspective.

What limits the utilization of health services among china labor force? analysis of inequalities in demographic, socio-economic and health status

BackgroundInequalities in demographic, socio-economic and health status for China labor force place them at greater health risks, and marginalized them in the utilization of healthcare services. This paper identifies the inequalities which limit the utilization of health services among China labor force, and provides a reference point for health policy.MethodsData were collected from 23,505 participants aged 15 to 65, from the 2014 China Labor Force Dynamic Survey (a nationwide cross-sectional survey covering 29 provinces with a multi-stage cluster, and stratified, probability sampling strategy) conducted by Sun Yat-sen University. Logistic regression models were used to study the effects of demographic (age, gender, marital status, type of hukou and migration status), socio-economic (education, social class and insurance) and health status (self-perceived general health and several chronic illnesses) variables on the utilization of health services (two-week visiting and hospitalization during the past 12 months). Goodness of fit was assessed using Hosmer-Lemeshow test. Discrimination ability was assessed based on the area under the receiver operating curve (AUC).ResultsMigrants with more than 1 (OR 2.80, 95% CI 1.01 ~ 7.82) or none chronic illnesses (OR 1.26, 95% CI 1.01 ~ 7.82) are more likely to be two week visiting to the clinic than non-migrants; migrants with none chronic illnesses (OR 0.61, 95% CI 0.45 ~ 0.82) are less likely to be in hospitalization during the past 12 months than non-migrants. Female, elder, hukou of non-agriculture, higher education level, higher social class, purchasing more insurance and poorer self-perceived health were predictors for more utilization of health service. More insurance benefited more two-week visiting (OR 1.12, 95% CI 1.06 ~ 1.17) and hospitalization during the past 12 months (OR 1.12, 95% CI 1.07 ~ 1.18) for individuals with none chronic illness but not ≥1 chronic illnesses. All models achieved good calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow test’s P range of 0.258-0.987) and discrimination (AUC range of 0.626-0.725).ConclusionsThis study has shown that there are inequalities of demographic, socio-economic and health status in the utilization of health services for China labor force. Prudent health policy with equitable utilization of health services eliminating mentioned inequalities should be a priority in shaping China’s healthcare system reform.

The economic returns to proficiency in English in China

We examine economic returns to proficiency in English in China using two waves of the China Labor-Force Dynamics Survey (CLDS). We find positive earnings returns to proficiency in English. We find considerable heterogeneity in the economic returns to proficiency in English across age groups, coastal and inland provinces, levels of education and occupation. We find that the returns to proficiency in English are higher in the coastal region, higher for women and evidence of education-language and skill-language complementarity. We also see differences in the economic returns to English between urban and rural residents and between rural-urban migrants and urban locals. Our findings help to explain why the demand for learning English is so high in China, as well as having implications for the Chinese government at a time when it is re-evaluating the importance attached to learning English in the curriculum.

What Chinese Workers Value: An Analysis of Job Satisfaction, Job Expectations, and Labor Turnover in China

This study uses data from the 2012 China Labor Force Dynamics Survey and 2010–2012 China Family Panel Studies to investigate job satisfaction and job expectations, as well as the association between job satisfaction and job turnover by gender among employees aged 16–65. We find not only that job satisfaction levels are relatively low, with only 46% of workers explicitly satisfied, but also that worker expectations differ significantly from what their jobs actually provide. In particular, many jobs are less interesting than expected, which prevents workers from realizing their perceived potential. This expectation gap is thus a strong determinant of job satisfaction. Men and women have similar levels of job satisfaction, yet based on observables, one would expect women's job satisfaction to be lower than it actually is, thereby lending support to the gender-job-satisfaction paradox encountered in Western studies. In contrast to Western research, we find no link between job satisfaction and job change, an observation we attribute to China's unique Confucian-based work ethic.

Unequal Living Conditions between Urban Migrants and Local Residents in China

Although migrants are the majority of increased urban population in China, the most of migrants cannot access the equal local social welfare system as the urban local residents because of the hukou policy (household registration) The migrants are more likely to live in an adverse conditions due to inferior socioeconomic status, which results to the disparity in health status between migrants and local residents. This study compares the unequal living conditions among urban population with 4 different resident statuses based on hukou residence and attributes, I compare the living conditions in terms of traffic, cooking and housing conditions to identify the disparities in the living conditions. The hypothesis is that the migrants’ living conditions are worse than local residents.The data comes from China Labor-force Dynamics Survey in 2012. It is a nationwide, large-scale, random sampled survey. The survey adopted three-stage stratified sampling and can represent the national population very well. The migrant household is defined as the households whose hukou residences have not be registered in the local cities. The urban population can be divided into (1) local resident household with non-agriculture hukou, (2) local resident household with agriculture hukou, (3) migrant household with non-agriculture hukou, and (4) migrant household with agriculture hukou. The variables about living conditions are compared by means of normal regression for continuous variables, logistical for categorical variables, and order logistic regression for ordinal variables. The results show that migrants with agriculture hukou and local residents with agriculture hukou have inferior living conditions that are significantly different from local residents. This suggests the special policy to adopt to address unequal living conditions in urban areas for policymakers.

Demographic, socio-economic, and health factors associated with use of health services among internal migrants in China: an analysis of data from a nationwide cross-sectional survey

BackgroundIn 2014, approximately 253 million Chinese migrants had left their hometowns and were working in cities. Inequalities in demographic, socioeconomic, and health status for migrants place them at increased risk of health problems and marginalised them in the use of health-care services. We aimed to identify the inequalities that limit the use of health services among internal migrants in China, and to provide a reference point for health policy. MethodsData were collected from 23 505 participants aged 15 years or older, from the 2014 China Labor Force Dynamic Survey (a nationwide cross-sectional survey covering 29 provinces with a multi-stage cluster, and stratified, probability sampling strategy) conducted by Sun Yat-sen University. Logistic regression analyses were used to study the associations between demographic (age, sex, marital status, type of hukou (the mandatory system of household registration), and migration status), socioeconomic (annual income, education, and social class) and health status (self-perceived general health and several chronic illnesses) variables and the use of health services (clinic visits during the past 2 weeks and hospital admission during the past 12 months). Ethical approval was obtained from Sun Yat-sen University (Guangdong, China). Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Findings2141 migrants and 21 364 residents were included. 71 (3·3%) migrants and 1296 (6·1%) residents underwent hospital admission during the past 12 months (OR 0·53, 95% CI 0·42–0·68); however, rates of 2-week clinic visits did not differ between the groups. After controlling for other variables, patients with more insurance, lower self-perceived general health, and a higher number of chronic illnesses were more likely to have 2-week clinical visits (all p<0·0001) and hospital admission during the past 12 months (all p<0·0001) compared with patients with less insurance, higher self-perceived general health, and a lower number of chronic illnesses, respectively; people from disadvantaged classes were less likely to be hospitalised (OR 0·92, 95% CI 0·86–0·98) than those from advantaged classes. InterpretationThis study showed that there are inequalities in demographic, socioeconomic, and health status associated with the use of health services for migrants in China. Prudent health policy with equitable use of health services to eliminate these inequalities should be a priority in shaping China's health-care system reform. FundingThis study had no funding.

Affirmative Inaction: Education, Language Proficiency, and Socioeconomic Attainment Among China's Uyghur Minority

:This study finds that the Mandarin proficiency is partially responsible for the gap in socioeconomic inequality between the Han majority and the Uyghur Muslim minority. Multiple sources of evidence show that Uyghur Muslims share equal educational attainment as the Han majority, but are noticeably less fluent in Mandarin than the Han majority. Using data from the 2012 China Labor-Force Dynamics Survey (CLDS), we find that Mandarin proficiency can significantly improve occupational attainment and income. In other words, holding other factors equal, if ethnic minorities speak better Mandarin, they would have better chances to improve their socioeconomic status.

Income-related health inequality of migrant workers in China and its decomposition: An analysis based on the 2012 China Labor-force Dynamics Survey data

BackgroundAlthough migrant workers are a vulnerable group in China, they demonstrably contribute to the country's economic growth and prosperity. This study aimed to describe and assess the inequality of migrant worker health in China and its association with socioeconomic determinants. MethodsThe data utilized in this study were obtained from the 2012 China Labor-force Dynamics Survey conducted in 29 Chinese provinces. This study converted the self-rated health of these migrant workers into a general cardinal ill-health score. Determinants associated with migrant worker health included but were not limited to age, marital status, income, and education, among other factors. Concentration index, concentration curve, and decomposition of the concentration index were employed to measure socioeconomic inequality in migrant workers' health. ResultsProrich inequality was found in the health of migrant workers. The concentration index was −0.0866, as a score indicator of ill health. Decomposition of the concentration index revealed that the factors most contributing to the observed inequality were income, followed by gender, age, marital status, and smoking history. ConclusionIt is generally known that there is an unequal socioeconomic distribution of migrant worker health in China. In order to reduce the health inequality, the government should make a substantial effort to strengthen policy implementation in improving the income distribution for vulnerable groups. After this investigation, it is apparent that the findings we have made warrant further investigation.

The Spatial and Career Mobility of China's Urban and Rural Labor Force.

This paper provides a comprehensive examination of the spatial and career mobility of China's labor population. The paper integrates theories on stratification and social change and exploits the innovative design and measurement of the China Labor-force Dynamics Survey to minimize the under-coverage problem of the rural-urban migratory experience. Our analysis provides several fresh findings: (1) at-birth rural household registration (hukou) status leads to a greater probability of spatial mobility and career advancement than at-birth urban hukou status does; (2) education and gender differentiates rural-origin people, increasing the heterogeneity of urban labor and decreasing the heterogeneity of rural labor; (3) hukou policy relaxation favors later cohorts over earlier cohorts; and (4) among demographically comparable people, having experienced spatial mobility is correlated with having career advancement experience. Work organizations are found to be the arena where the two dimensions of mobility can happen jointly. Our findings provide a rich context for understanding the management and organization of Chinese labor.

Internal migration and the health of the returned population: a nationally representative study of China.

BackgroundChina had 236 million internal migrants in 2012 and the majority of them migrated from rural to urban areas. The research based on medical and epidemical records found that the migrants had worse health than the urban residents, but the household and working place investigations reported better health status. The sick or unhealthy migrants are likely to return to their hometowns, which in turn may cause a report bias or over-estimation of the health status of rural-to-urban migrants in China. This paper explores the association of migration status and the physical and psychological health of Chinese internal migrants.MethodsNationally representative household survey data from the China Labor-force Dynamics Survey 2012 (CLDS) were used to analyze the association between the migration status and the health status of internal migrants in China. Migration status of the respondents was measured by hukou status and migration experience and all respondents were divided into four groups: returned population, migrant population, urban residents, and rural residents. Health status of respondents was measured by self-reported physical and psychological health.ResultsMigration experience was associated with the physical health of the returned population. The physical health of the returned population was worse than the migrant population and was distinguished by age and sex. The physical health status of migrant population was significantly better than rural residents, but not significantly better than urban residents. However, the association between migration status and psychological health was not statistically significant. Besides migration status, the socioeconomic status (SES) had a positive correlation with both physical and psychological health status, while occupational hazards exerted negative influence.ConclusionThe results indicate a tight association between migration experience and health status. The internal unhealthy migrants were more likely to return to their hometown and the migrant population might have limited health advantage.

On the Interaction between the Quantity and Quality of Children

Students of human fertility have been aware for a long time that there may be some special relation between the number (quantity) of children ever born to a family and the "quality" of their children as perceived by others if not by the parents. One need only cite the negative correlation between quantity and quality of children per family so often observed in both cross-section and time-series data. One of us (Becker 1960) more than a decade ago stressed the importance for understanding fertility (quantity) of the interaction between quantity and quality, and we are pleased to note that this interaction is emphasized in most of the papers in this Supplement, especially those by De Tray and Willis. Some economists have argued that the negative relation between quantity and quality often observed is a consequence of a low substitution elasticity in a family's utility function between parents' consumption or level of living and that of their children (see, e.g., Duesenberry 1960; Willis 1969). The approach followed by De Tray in this volume is different, but it makes equally special assumptions about the substitution between quantity and quality in the utility function and in household production.