Children's Sensory Processing Research Articles

Relationship between sensory processing skills and motor skills in 12-month-old infants.

Identifying sensory processing problems of 12-month-old preterm and term children and defining their relationship with motor skills are essential for appropriate interventions and optimal sensory-motor development. This study aimed to determine sensory processing difficulties in 12-month-old babies and examine their relationship with motor skills. This cross-sectional study included 61 infants (28 preterm and 33 full-term, ages 12 months). The infants' sensory processing skills were evaluated using the Test of Sensory Functions in Infants (TSFI), and their gross and fine motor skills were assessed with the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2 (PDMS-2). Sensory processing difficulties were more common in preterm babies. Multiple linear regression models indicated a significant positive association between PDMS-2 gross/fine motor scores and TFSI total scores, reactivity to tactile deep pressure, and ocular-motor control in the total sample. Furthermore, there was a relationship between gross motor and adaptive motor function, and fine motor scores were found to be associated with visual-tactile integration sensory scores. Preterm babies are more likely than their full-term peers to have sensory processing problems around the age of one, which can affect their motor skills. The results support the relationship between children's sensory and motor processing skills. Practitioners such as occupational and physical therapists should be alert to this relationship in infants with sensory processing and motor problems. Taking this relationship into consideration when planning intervention programs can be a guide for an effective intervention.

Sensory room: Naturalistic assessment of auditory and visual perception in developing children

IntroductionHearing is essential for language acquisition and understanding the environment. Understanding how children react to auditory and visual information is essential for appropriate management in case of hearing loss. Objective and subjective assessments can diagnose hearing loss, but do not measure natural perception in children. We developed a “sensory room” for complementary assessment of children's perceptions so as to assess behavioral responses to meaningful natural sounds and visual stimuli in an ecologic environment suited to children. Material and methodsSixteen normal-hearing children and 10 with congenital hearing loss before cochlear implantation, aged 13 to 32months, were included in this feasibility study. They perceived 18 environmental sounds and 9 visual stimuli, and their behavioral responses were coded accordingly as: stopping, looking, moving, pointing, language or emotional reactions. ResultAll children completed the task, demonstrating its feasibility in children. Percentage responses to auditory versus visual stimuli did not differ in normal-hearing children; those with congenital hearing loss responded like normal-hearing children to visual stimuli, but did not react to auditory stimuli. Progression in normal-hearing children's behavioral responses corresponded to cognitive and linguistic development according to age. ConclusionThe “sensory room” quantified children's responses to various auditory and visual stimuli, providing clinicians with measurable insight into the children's sensory perception and processing.

The Effect of Touch and Massage Techniques Applied to Children on Parental Role Perception and Perceived Stress

Aim: The study examined the effects of tactile and massage techniques on the occupational therapist’s perspective on the role perception and stress levels of parents and the changes in children’s sensory processing. Method: A total of 30 children, (18 females and 12 males), aged 3-6, with normal development, and their parents were included in the study. A diverse community sample of mothers (M=33.6±5.521 years) and their preschool-aged children (M=4.5±1.2 years) participated in the study. The following instruments were employed: Parental Stress Index, Self-Perception Scale for Parenting Role, and Sensory Profile Test. Parents were instructed in a number of touch and massage techniques devised by the Occupational Therapist within the framework of Sensory Integration Theory. Following the 15-minute and 20-session implementation period, the parents were then tested. After the sessions were completed, the tests were repeated. Results: The findings indicated that at the end of the study, there was a decrease in parental stress levels, and an increase in parental role perception and children's sensory processing skills (p <0.05). The study demonstrated that touch and massage techniques can positively impact parent-child interaction. Conclusion: Studies examining the potential enduring effects of positive parental touch on stress levels and parental role perception rarely extend beyond infancy. It is believed that research with a larger sample size on this topic would contribute significantly to the existing literature.

Sensory Processing Abnormalities in School-Age Children With Neurodevelopmental Disorders Are Associated With the Range of Learning Difficulties

ABSTRACT There is pervasive evidence that problems in sensory processing occur across a range of neurodevelopmental disorders. The present study compared the sensory profile of typically developing (TD) children with those of children with learning disorders (LD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and with developmental language disorder (DLD), and investigated the association between the child’s sensory profile and reading and maths learning difficulties. Seventy-four parents of children aged between 8 and 10 years old participated, completing the Colorado Learning Difficulties Questionnaire (CLDQ) and the Child Sensory Processing Profile (CSP-2) assessments of their child’s performance on literacy/mathematics and sensory processing, respectively. There was strong evidence of abnormal sensory processing across the range of learning disorders and across all four ‘quadrants’ of the CSP-2. The children with ASD, ADHD, and DLD had major abnormalities. In contrast, children with LD showed significant but more modest differences. There was a significant association between the sensory profile and the mathematics component of the CLDQ. The findings highlight shared abnormalities in sensory processing across the range of developmental disorders and have substantial theoretical and applied implications.

Convergent validity between the school-age versions of the Sensory Processing Measure 2 (SPM2) and the Sensory Profile 2 (SP2): A pilot study.

The Sensory Processing Measure 2 (SPM2) and the Sensory Profile 2 (SP2) are two sensory processing scales often used by occupational therapists. The SPM2 and SP2 both claim to assess aspects of children's sensory processing. This cross-sectional study examined the convergent validity of the SPM2-Home Form (SPM2-HF) and Child SP2 for school-aged neurotypical children. Thirty parents/caregivers of neurotypical children aged 7 to 12 completed the SPM2-HF and the Child SP2 about their child. Spearman rho's correlation coefficient with bootstrapping was used to investigate the correlations among the sensory, behavioural, and quadrant scores of the Child SP2 and SPM2-HF subscale scores. Given the topic, consumers and community members were not involved in the design, execution, or write up of the study results. Several statistically significant correlations were found between the sensory and quadrant subscales of the Child SP2 with the SPM-HF. Strong to moderate correlations were established between the sensory subscales of the Child SP2 and the SPM2-HF, ranging from 0.40 to 0.74 (p< 0.05). Additionally, correlations between the quadrant subscales of the Child SP2 and the subscales of the SPM2-HF ranged from weak (0.38) to strong (0.77) correlations (p< 0.05). These results provide evidence of convergent validity between the SPM2-HF and Child SP2 for neurotypical school-aged children. Further research on the psychometric properties of the SPM2-HF and Child SP2 is recommended.

Mothers' Perspectives: Daily Life When Your Child Has Sensory Differences.

A child's sensory processing and sensory integration (SP-SI) differences can be a barrier to participation in daily life for both child and mother. Supporting mothers is advocated for, but little is known about the everyday experiences of these mothers. To gain an understanding of daily life for mothers and their children with SP-SI differences. Qualitative semi-structured interviews with six mothers were analyzed through thematic analysis. Theme 1 described the impact of child SP-SI on daily life, including challenges in occupations across environments, adaptations required, and the lack of knowledge and understanding from social and professional networks. Theme 2 identified what helps: empowering mothers through relationships based on listening, gaining knowledge, and understanding, and adapting the activity and the environment. Mothers report that their child's SP-SI differences impact daily occupations and social relationships. In addition, supportive relationships, adapting activities, and adapting the environment, support participation.

Associations between Prepartum and Postpartum Maternal Symptoms of Depression, Anxiety and Stress Related to COVID-19 Pandemic and Childhood Sensory Avoidance: Results from Conception Study.

Prepartum and postpartum maternal symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression are likely to influence the child's sensory processing through hormonal alterations and an influence on mother-child interactions. We investigated the associations between maternal prepartum and postpartum symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress related to the COVID-19 pandemic and childhood sensory avoidance at 18 months. Longitudinal data from 409 participants followed during the COVID-19 pandemic were used. They completed questionnaires during pregnancy and up to 18 months after delivery. Maternal distress symptoms were assessed prenatally and at 18 months postnatally using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, the Generalized Anxiety Disorders 7-item Scale and a 10-point scale assessing the level of stress felt related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Child sensory avoidance was assessed at 18 months postpartum using the Infant/Toddler Sensory Profile-Second Edition. Pearson correlations and multiple regressions measured the associations between maternal distress symptoms and child sensory avoidance. Prepartum and 18-month postpartum maternal depression and anxiety were significantly correlated with childhood sensory avoidance (p < 0.05). Together, these variables explained 7.18% (F = 2.12, p < 0.05) of the variance of childhood sensory avoidance. These results support the contributory effect of prepartum and postpartum maternal distress on childhood sensory development.

Children's sensory processing sensitivity and prosocial behaviors: Testing the differential susceptibility theory.

We conducted two studies to investigate whether children (3-6 years old) with high sensory processing sensitivity show greater susceptibility toward environmental influence in their prosocial development. In two independent samples (NStudy 1 = 120, 55 boys, 65 girls; NStudy 2 = 151, 72 boys, 79 girls), we successfully replicated the findings that children with high sensory processing sensitivity, particularly aesthetic sensitivity, demonstrated stronger susceptibility to the influence of negative parenting in their prosocial behaviors. In the laboratory experimental setting (Study 2), we found that children high in sensory processing sensitivity demonstrated stronger susceptibility to observed negative feedback compared to children with low sensitivity. The heightened susceptibility to observed feedback may potentially be attributed to their enhanced emotional reactivity in reaction to environmental stimuli. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Processamento sensorial e engajamento: uma revisão sistemática

Abstract The ability of children to organize themselves sensorially in a school environment to remain engaged in their routine activities has been minimally explored by occupational therapists. This study aimed to identify research on sensory processing and engagement carried out by occupational therapists over the past decade. Moreover, it seeks to analyze the depth and quality of discussions regarding the relationship between sensory processing and children’s engagement in their occupations. A systematic review was conducted utilizing the descriptors: sensory processing, engagement, and occupational therapy. These descriptors were combined through the AND operator in the VHL, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. Included articles, whether in English or other languages, defined and measured sensory processing; highlighted a relationship between child sensory processing and occupational engagement; were published within the past 10 years (2008 to 2018); underwent peer-review; are available in full; involved participants aged 0 to 7 years; and were authored by occupational therapists. The review process was performed by two authors using predefined data fields, which included study quality indicators. The results identified a mere nine articles on this specific theme. An assessment based on the OT Seeker scale revealed scores of moderate magnitude. This suggests a pressing need for occupational therapists to invest in the expansion of discerning research, aiming to elevate scientific evidence regarding the relationship between sensory processing and occupational engagement.

Sensory Processing and Visual Motor Integration of Children with Autism

<h3>Research Objectives</h3> To investigate the visual motor integration performance and sensory processing of preschool aged children with autism spectrum disorder. <h3>Design</h3> Multiple linear regression was employed. Retrospective data on preschool aged children with autism who received six months of occupational therapy was collected from an outpatient clinic in Florida. Three research questions were analyzed using data from 36 children (32 males, 4 females) who met the inclusion criteria. <h3>Setting</h3> Data was retrieved from an outpatient rehabilitation clinic in Florida. <h3>Participants</h3> A non-probability purposive sampling strategy was employed for the study. Patient charts of children aged two to five years of age with diagnoses of ASD were reviewed. The data reviewed spanned from June 1, 2017 to March 13, 2020. Patient charts with pre and six-month-post SSP and Beery VMI scores who attended at least one therapy treatment session were included in the study. <h3>Interventions</h3> Children with ASD who attended at least one outpatient occupational therapy treatment session were included in the study. Pre SSP, post SSP, pre Beery VMI scores, and post Beery VMI scores were recorded with relevant demographic information (e.g., age and gender) based on attendance and participation in occupational evaluations. <h3>Main Outcome Measures</h3> Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration and the Short Sensory Profile 2 were utilized for pre and post scores. <h3>Results</h3> There was a statistically significant improvement in visual motor scores, with pre scores being highly predictive of post scores. There was no significant difference between pre and post sensory scores and they were not predictive of Visual Motor scores. <h3>Conclusions</h3> The findings showed significant improvements in VMI and non-significant improvements in SSP. The final predictive model for VMI can be utilized by clinicians to create realistic goals for therapy. Additionally, these findings suggest that VMI may improve regardless of a child's sensory processing difficulties. <h3>Author(s) Disclosures</h3> The authors declare no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in the information being presented.

Supplemental Material for Children's Sensory Processing Sensitivity and Prosocial Behaviors: Testing the Differential Susceptibility Theory

Supplemental Material for Children's Sensory Processing Sensitivity and Prosocial Behaviors: Testing the Differential Susceptibility Theory

Neonatal pain, thalamic development and sensory processing behaviour in children born very preterm

BackgroundAltered sensory processing is commonly reported in children born very preterm (≤32 weeks' gestational age [GA]). The immature nervous system, particularly the development of connections from the thalamus to the cortex, may show enhanced vulnerability to excessive sensory stimulation, and may contribute to altered sensory processing. Our objective was to determine whether sensory processing assessed at preschool-aged in children born very preterm was predicted by neonatal procedural pain and thalamic development. MethodsIn a prospective longitudinal cohort study, N = 140 very preterm infants (median GA at birth 28 weeks) underwent MRI early-in-life and again at term-equivalent age. Children returned for assessment at 4.5 years. Parents reported on child sensory processing behaviors on the Short Sensory Profile. General linear models were used to assess factors associated with sensory processing behaviors, adjusting for clinical and demographic factors. ResultsAmong extremely preterm neonates (born 24–28 weeks' GA), but not very-preterm neonates (29–32 weeks' GA), more invasive procedures were associated with poorer sensory processing (B = −0.09, 95%CI [−0.17, −0.01] p = 0.03). In the overall cohort, fewer sensory processing problems were associated with greater thalamic growth between birth and term-equivalent age (B = 0.3, 95%CI [0.11, 0.42], p < 0.001). Extremely preterm neonates exposed to a high number of skin-breaking procedures who exhibited slower neonatal thalamic growth displayed the highest sensory processing problems (B = −26.2, 95%CI [−45.96, −6.38], p = 0.01). ConclusionEarly exposure to pain and related alterations in the developing thalamus may be a key factor underlying later sensory problems in children born extremely preterm.

Atypical sensory processing features in children with autism, and their relationships with maladaptive behaviors and caregiver strain.

Atypical sensory processing occurs in up to 97% of children on the autism spectrum. Children who are on the autism spectrum also commonly demonstrate challenging behaviors, and their caregivers report increased levels of strain in daily life. The aim of this study was to explore four sensory processing features; seeking, avoiding, sensitivity, and registration, and their relationships with maladaptive behaviors in children with autism, as well as with caregiver strain. Participants comprised 75 children with autism aged 7–12 years (M = 7.81). Caregivers completed three questionnaire measures examining child sensory processing, maladaptive behaviors, and perceptions of caregiver strain. We found avoiding significantly associated with irritability. Avoiding also displayed the strongest relationship with global caregiver strain. Avoiding and seeking were strongly related to hyperactivity/noncompliance (components of maladaptive behavior). A multiple regression was performed to explore how atypical sensory processing features and maladaptive behaviors together predicted caregiver strain. Together, maladaptive behaviors and sensory features accounted for 58% of the variance in total caregiver strain. The only significant individual predictor of total caregiver strain was sensory avoiding, which uniquely accounted for 5.76% of the variation. The findings suggest that atypical sensory processing is associated with overall caregiver strain, above that explained by maladaptive behaviors. Implications for targeted support for the benefit of the child, parents and family unit are discussed.Lay summaryChildren who are on the autism spectrum often have differences in sensory processing. These children also tend to show challenging behaviors, and their caregivers can experience increased stress. This study looked at how sensory processing difficulties relate to such behaviors and caregiver stress. We found that both sensory processing and challenging behaviors were related to the amount of stress caregivers felt. This suggests that interventions may benefit from looking at sensory processing features when considering how to help reduce challenging behaviors and caregiver stress.

Sensory processing sensitivity behavior moderates the association between environmental harshness, unpredictability, and child socioemotional functioning.

Building on Ellis et al.'s theorization for potent dimensions of environmental adversity, the present work sought to evaluate how environmental harshness and unpredictability might function directly and in interaction with child sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) to shape the development of child socioemotional functioning. Participants were 235 young children (Mage = 2.97 at the first measurement occasion) and their parents, who were followed for two consecutive annual measurement occasions. Child SPS was measured through behavioral observation across multiple tasks within the laboratory setting. Greater environmental unpredictability was significantly associated with the development of children's externalizing problems over a year only for children with high SPS. Follow-up analyses indicated that the unpredictability-x-SPS interaction was consistent with differential susceptibility, such that high SPS children showed greater increases in externalizing problems under high unpredictability, but also lower increases/greater decreases in externalizing problems under low unpredictability. Such association did not apply to children with low SPS.

Sensory profile of children with Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD).

To analyze the sensory profile of children with auditory sensory processing disorder according to the Child Sensory Profile 2 and to verify potential associations between central auditory processing and sensory processing. Sixty children from two public schools in the city of João Pessoa, state of Paraíba, were evaluated. All children had their cognitive skills tested and their socioeconomic and demographic information collected. The children's hearing, central auditory processing, and sensory processing were evaluated. SPSS Statistics version 25.0 was used for data analysis and the significant value adopted was 0.05. Descriptive analysis was performed using the central tendency method. The similarities among the test variables were measured by Student's t-test and Mann-Whitney U test. The effect size (ES) between the groups was measured by Cohen's d or Rosenthal's r coefficient. The average age of children with CAPD was 8.4 years, and their families had lower levels of income and education when compared to those without the disorder. Children with CAPD present more sensory differences than their peers with normative CAP. The Child Sensory Processing 2 results didn't show any statistic associations with central auditory processing, and the effect size was of moderate magnitude for the visual system. Children with CAPD have more sensory differences than their peers according to the normative results of the Child Sensory Profile 2. An association between sensory and central auditory processing was not observed, except for the visual system.

Family context in association with the development of child sensory processing sensitivity.

Informed by the biological sensitivity to the context (BSC) theory, this multimethod, longitudinal study sought to examine how family context may be associated with the development of child sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) over a year. Participants were 235 young children (Mage = 2.97 at the first measurement occasion, 55.3% were girls) and their parents (median annual household income: $55,000 to 74,999), who were followed for two annual measurement occasions. These children consisted of 56.2% White, 21.3% African American, and 16.2% mixed race. Child SPS was measured via behavioral observation within multiple laboratory tasks at both waves and exhibited moderate stability over time. A curvilinear association between environmental harshness and the change in child SPS emerged, which proved consistent with the U-shaped pattern hypothesized by the BSC theory. Children remain at similar levels of SPS over the year under low and high levels of environmental harshness but exhibited decreases in SPS under moderate levels of environmental harshness. A follow-up exploration for the developmental implication of SPS change showed that children with higher SPS benefited more from the supportive environment by developing greater cognitive and behavioral functioning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Families of Children in Pain: Are Attachment and Sensory Processing Patterns Related to Parent Functioning?

Effective parent functioning is a key predictor of functional outcomes for children with persistent pain. It is therefore important to identify factors that support or limit functioning in parents of these children. Child and parent attachment and child sensory processing patterns have been identified as risk-factors for parent functioning in healthy samples. Our study extends current research by examining whether parent and child attachment patterns and child sensory processing patterns are related to parent functioning in families of children with persistent pain. Using a cross-sectional design, data was collected at a tertiary pain management clinic from 98 parent-child dyads (i.e., a child or adolescent with persistent pain and one parent). Standardized questionnaires were used to assess parent and child attachment patterns, child sensory processing patterns, child pain intensity, and eight domains of parent functioning. Regression analyses revealed that parent attachment avoidance was significantly related to poorer overall parent functioning and three functioning domains: depression, partner relationship, and leisure. Child attachment avoidance was related to higher parental strain and the use of fewer protective parenting behaviors. Parent and child attachment anxiety and child sensory processing patterns were not significantly related to parent functioning. Findings suggest that parent and child attachment avoidance warrant further consideration with regards to parent functioning in clinical settings where children present with persistent pain. This may aid in identifying parents who are at-risk of poorer functioning and could guide the use of attachment-informed interventions for families of children with persistent pain.

Supplemental Material for Family Context in Association With the Development of Child Sensory Processing Sensitivity

Supplemental Material for Family Context in Association With the Development of Child Sensory Processing Sensitivity

The relationship between preschoolers’ sensory regulation and temperament: implications for parents and early childhood caregivers

ABSTRACT With a non-clinical sample of pre-schoolers, we used partial least squares regression to assess the extent to which children's seven sensory regulatory factors (X) account for variations in the three temperament factors (Y) and Y explains variations in X. The results suggested predicting temperament factors from sensory processing factors receive better outcomes. Finally, multiple regression analyses using the sensory processing measures to predict each of the three temperamental variables showed that (1) significant predictors of negative affectivity included difficulties in tactile sensitivity, taste/smell sensitivity, and low energy; (2) surgency was predicted by underresponsive/seeks sensation, auditory filtering, tactile sensitivity, and movement sensitivity; and (3) effortful control was predicted by low energy and auditory filtering. The hypothesis supported children's sensory processing preferences form the basis for the manifestation of temperament. Parents and educators need to notice environmental stimuli can cause challenges for children with sensory processing difficulties and manifesti difficult temperament.

Association between Body Mass Index and Sensory Processing in Childhood: InProS Study.

We assessed the association between body mass index (BMI) and sensory processing in 445 Spanish children aged 3–7 from the InProS project. Child sensory processing was measured using the short sensory profile (SSP); an atypical sensory performance was defined as an SSP total score <155 and scores of tactile sensitivity <30; taste/smell sensitivity <15; movement sensitivity <13; under-responsive/seeks sensation <27; auditory filtering <23; low energy/weak <26; and visual/auditory sensitivity <19. The BMI was calculated according to the cutoffs by the World Health Organization for children aged 0–5 and 5–19 years. We used multiple Poisson regression models with robust variance to obtain prevalence ratios (PR). No associations between children’s overweight and obesity and the prevalence of atypical sensory outcomes were observed. A one-point increase in BMI was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of atypical tactile sensitivity (PR = 1.07, 95% CI: 1.02; 1.12). A statistically marginal association was also observed for atypical total SSP (PR = 1.03, 95% CI: 1.00; 1.07) and atypical movement sensitivity (PR = 1.05, 95% CI: 1.00; 1.10). To our knowledge, this is the first time the association between children’s BMI and sensory processing has been reported. Our findings suggest that sensory processing issues may play a part in the complex context of childhood obesity. Further research is required to confirm these findings.