Children's Adjustment Research Articles

Implementation and quality of an early childhood education program for newly arrived refugee children in Germany: an observational study

Early childhood education [ECE] can foster the social-emotional adjustment and development of young refugee children. Still, the large numbers of newly arriving refugee families challenge the ECE capacities of host countries. In Germany, state authorities have subsidized flexible ECE programs for refugee children in response to this situation. The goal of this study was to examine the implementation and quality of these programs. In the first study phase, we categorized the seemingly heterogeneous ECE programs and assembled measures to assess their ECE quality. In the second study phase, we evaluated the ECE quality of a randomly selected sample of these ECE programs (N = 42) using standardized observation procedures. The ECE programs were implemented differently in temporary setups (caravans, tents), improvised settings (parish rooms, refugee accommodations), or education settings (preschools, elementary schools). To evaluate ECE quality, we created an observation tool for structural quality and coded dimensions from the Classroom Assessment Scoring System Pre-K for process quality. Overall, structural quality was acceptable but differed between implementation settings. Process quality was consistently high, independent of the settings. Our findings suggest that adaptive ECE programs under a flexible childcare policy could support young refugee children after they arrive in host countries. Still, such ECE programs do not compensate for center-based ECE services because of their more vigorous emphasis on children’s social-emotional adjustment than pre-academic learning. Further research should consider adaptive assessment tools to assess ECE quality, taking into account heterogeneous program implementation strategies and the specific needs of refugee children.

The role of parenting stress in anxiety and sleep outcomes in toddlers with congenital heart disease.

This retrospective cohort study investigates how parenting stress, measured at 4 months of age by use of a classic three-dimensional parent-reported scale (Parenting Stress Index, 4th Ed. or PSI-4), can predict anxiety symptoms and quality of sleep at 24 months in toddlers with congenital heart disease (CHD). Sixty-six toddlers with CHD followed at our cardiac neurodevelopmental follow-up clinic were included in this study. As part of their systematic developmental assessment program, parents completed questionnaires on their stress level (PSI-4) when their child was 4 months old, and on their child's anxiety symptoms and quality of sleep at 24 months. Eight multiple linear regression models were built on the two measures collected at 24 months using the PSI-4 scores collected at 4 months. For each measure, four models were built from the PSI-4 total score and its three subscales (Parental Distress, Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction, Difficult Child), controlling for sex and socioeconomic status. The PSI-4 Difficult Child subscale, which focuses on parenting anxiety related to the child's behavioral problems and poor psychosocial adjustment, accounted for 17% of the child's anxiety symptoms at 24 months. The two other PSI-4 subscales (Parental Distress and Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction) and the PSI-4 total score did not contribute significantly to the models. None of the four regression models on perceived quality of sleep were significant. It is important to note that 33% of parents responded defensively to the PSI-4. Parenting stress related to the child's behavioral problems and poor psychosocial adjustment, measured when the child is 4 months old, is associated with the child's ulterior anxiety symptoms. As very few standardized tools are available to assess the behavioral and psychoaffective development of infants, this study highlights the importance of early psychosocial screening in parents of infants with CHD. The high rate of significant Defensive Responding Indices reminds us to not take parent reports at face value, as their actual stress levels might be higher.

Socio-emotional adjustment in children attending family centres: The role of the parent–child relationship

Abstract Family services offer the possibility of producing data sets, capable of primary analyses to measure service efficacy, and secondary analyses to develop nuanced understandings of family needs. In this article, we report secondary analysis of data drawn from 1,151 families elicited upon intake to family centres in Ireland. The aim was to examine correlates of children’s socio-emotional functioning, with focus on the quality of relationships between children and parents. Participating families completed surveys containing socio-demographic questions and standardised instruments tapping into children’s social, emotional and behavioural strengths and difficulties, parents’ mental health, and closeness and conflict in parent–child relationship. Findings indicated that parents’ perceptions of their children’s socio-emotional functioning significantly influenced the quality of the child–parent relationship. Higher levels of conflict were significantly associated with psychological difficulties, whilst greater closeness was significantly related to prosocial behaviours. These relationships held after controlling for a range of child, parent and family socio-demographic variables, such as the child’s experience of chronic illness or stressful life events, both of which independently predicted poorer outcomes. Results are discussed in terms of the dynamic, reciprocal nature of family relationships whereby parent–child conflict and children’s problematic socio-emotional functioning likely influence, and are influenced by, each other.

Behavioural adjustment of children with intellectual disability and their sibling is associated with their sibling relationship quality.

Understanding sibling relationship quality is important, as it is associated with mental health outcomes in both childhood and adulthood. Arguably, these relationships are even more important for individuals with intellectual disability, as siblings can be important sources of care, support, advocacy and friendship for one another. The intellectual disability field, however, has a tendency to assume that the relationship lacks reciprocity, and that it is the sibling with intellectual disability who affects the sibling, and that this effect is somehow 'negative'. We examined whether the behaviour problems and prosocial behaviour of 500 child sibling pairs, where one child has an intellectual disability, were associated with their sibling relationship quality. Measures included the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires and the Sibling Relationship Questionnaire. Family poverty, the gender of both children, birth order and whether the child with intellectual disability had autism or Down syndrome were also included in the analyses. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated an adequate model fit for the latent variables measuring sibling relationships. The final structural model found that the prosocial behaviour and internalising problems of the children with intellectual disability, their typically developing siblings' prosocial behaviours and sibling birth order were associated with intimacy-companionship in the sibling relationship. The internalising, externalising and prosocial behaviours of the children with intellectual disability, their siblings' externalising behaviours and sibling birth order were associated with antagonism-quarrelling in the sibling relationship. We found that the behaviours of both the child with intellectual disability and their sibling were associated with both 'positive' and 'negative' dimensions of their sibling relationship. This indicates a bidirectional and reciprocal effect.

The journey back to normality: Support systems and posttrauma needs following exposure to single-incident trauma among children and adolescents.

Social support has been linked to posttrauma adjustment in children and adolescents, but the components of good support remain poorly defined. We conducted qualitative interviews with 30 youths aged 7-16 years after being admitted to a hospital following a single-incident trauma, predominantly injury or illness. The aim was to identify youths' support needs and examine the support they received across different recovery stages. Thematic analysis revealed that although participants appreciated increased attention and warm support during their hospital stay, most wanted their lives to return to normal soon afterward and were frustrated by barriers to achieving this. Participants received support from different sources, but parents and peers were the most important providers of emotional support and the people with whom these individuals most frequently engaged in trauma-related conversations. Furthermore, although it was important that schools were sensitive to the youths' potential limitations regarding their ability to engage with lessons, emotional support from teachers was less valued. Overall, this study implies that ecological models incorporating multiple interacting layers capture the structure of youths' posttrauma support systems well. These findings may be used to tailor posttrauma interventions more closely to child and adolescent needs at different recovery stages and highlight the importance of having parents and, where possible, peers involved in posttrauma interventions or prevention programs.

Association between whole-grain intake and myopia in chinese children: a cross-sectional epidemiological study

BackgroundNutritional status influences the growth and development of the eyes. However, there are few studies on the association between diet, especially whole grains (WG) consumption, and myopia. The study aimed to evaluate the association between WG intake and myopia prevalence among primary school-age children in China.MethodsThis cross-sectional epidemiological study conducted between November 2019 and December 2019 included 586 children, aged 6–12 years, attending primary school in Binhai district, Tianjin, China. Ophthalmologic examinations and optometric cycloplegic refraction measurements were conducted. Information was collected on known risks and protective factors for myopia and the consumption of WGs, vegetables, and fruits. This association between the probability of myopia and the proportion of WG consumption (WG proportion was calculated as the mean intake from WG sources divided by total grain intake), adjusted for protective and risk factors, was analysed using crude and multivariable logistic regression.ResultsAmong the study participants, 226/586 (38.57%) children had myopia in at least one eye. WG intake was inversely correlated with the prevalence of myopia. Furthermore, in the multivariate analysis, WG intake of > 50% was identified as a protective factor against myopia after subsequent adjustment for children’s age, sex, parental myopia, near-work activity, screen time, reading and writing habits, visual fatigue, outdoor time, and classroom light environment (all P < 0.05).ConclusionWG intake (> 50%) was an independent protective factor against myopia. Modifying the form of grains consumed (whole versus refined) could be one of the targets of future public health measures.

The relationship between parenting styles and parents' social adjustment in children with learning disabilities

Aim: The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between parenting styles and parents' social adjustment in children with learning disabilities. Methods: In terms of purpose, this research is an applied research and in terms of execution, it is a descriptive type of correlational research. The statistical population of the research is all parents who have children with learning disabilities. 150 people were selected as a statistical sample. According to the nature of the research, data collection was done using Gholami and Delavar's learning disorder questionnaires (2021), Diana Baumrind's parenting methods (1973), Weizmann and Pekel's social adjustment scale (1978). In the analysis of the research findings, correlation coefficients were used. And multiple regression was used with SPSS 20 software. Results: The results of the research showed that Spearman's correlation coefficients in the parenting styles component are 0.352, permissive style 0.175, autocratic style 0.187, assertiveness and confidence 322.00 and significance level (p≤0.005). Therefore, parenting styles have a direct relationship with parents' social adaptation in children with learning disabilities. Also, the multiple regression coefficient between parenting styles and parents' social adjustment in children with learning disabilities is equal to (R2=0.377). This value indicates the fact that parenting styles have been able to predict about 0.377% of the variance of social adjustment changes. Conclusion: It can be concluded that there is a relationship between parenting learning styles and social adaptation, and learning centers and other organizations related to learning disorders can pay more attention to parenting styles in the education of these types of children in order to provide them with a better education

The relationship between parenting styles and social adjustment of parents with children with learning disabilities: the mediating role of emotional regulation

Background and Aim: Life skills, including social adaptation, play an essential role in life, and paying attention to parenting styles can play a role in social adaptation. Accordingly, the aim of this research was to investigate the relationship between parenting styles and parents' social adjustment in children with learning disabilities. Methods: The current research method was applied in terms of purpose and descriptive in terms of correlation. The statistical population of the research consists of all mothers aged 30 to 55 with children with learning disabilities in primary schools in Qom, 260 of whom have referred to learning disabilities centers, of which 150 were selected as the sample size by random sampling. The research tools included Gholami and Delavari learning disorder questionnaires (2020), Baumerind's parenting methods (1973), Wiseman and Pickel's social adjustment scale (1978) and Garnefski cognitive emotion regulation (2001). To analyze the data, descriptive and inferential statistics (structural equations and path analysis) were used with SPSS24 and PLs software. Results: The research findings showed that there is a significant relationship between parenting styles and emotional regulation with parents' social adjustment. Also, the results showed that the mediating role of emotional regulation in the relationship between parenting styles and parents' social adjustment, which is equal to /438 in the research, is a positive value and significant at the 95% confidence level. Also, the coefficient value of the path of emotional regulation on parents' social adjustment is equal to 0.654, which is a positive value. The t-statistic of this relationship is equal to 10.513, which is reported to be significant at the 95% confidence level. The data means that there is a significant relationship between the dimensions of parenting styles and parents' social adjustment with the mediation of emotional regulation. Conclusion: According to the value obtained from the VAF statistic (the role of the mediator variable) which was equal to 0.554, partial mediation has been confirmed.

The associations of childhood psychosocial factors with cognitive function in midlife-The young finns study.

An adverse psychosocial environment in childhood may harm cognitive development, but the associations for adulthood cognitive function remain obscure. We tested the hypothesis that adverse childhood psychosocial factors associate with poor cognitive function in midlife by leveraging the prospective data from the Young Finns Study. At the age of 3-18 years, the participants' psychosocial factors (socioeconomic and emotional environment, parental health behaviors, stressful events, child's self-regulatory behavior, and social adjustment) were collected. In addition to the separate psychosocial factors, a score indicating their clustering was created. Cognitive function was measured at the age of 34-49 years with a computerized test addressing learning and memory (N = 1,011), working memory (N = 1,091), sustained attention and information processing (N = 1,071), and reaction and movement time (N = 999). We observed an inverse association between the accumulation of unfavorable childhood psychosocial factors and poorer learning and memory in midlife (age, sex, education, adulthood smoking, alcohol drinking, and physical activity adjusted β = -0.032, SE = 0.01, p = .009). This association corresponded approximately to the effect of 7 months aging. Specifically, poor self-regulatory behavior (β = -0.074, SE = 0.03, p = .032) and social adjustment in childhood (β = -0.111, SE = 0.03, p = .001) associated with poorer learning ability and memory 30 years later. No associations were found for other cognitive domains. The findings suggest an association of childhood psychosocial factors with midlife learning ability and memory. If these links are causal, the results highlight the importance of a child's self-regulation and social adjustment as plausible determinants for adulthood cognitive health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The HOME-21: A revised measure of the home environment for the 21st century tested in two independent samples.

For decades, the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) has been the most widely used measure of children's home environments. This report provides a revised version of the HOME-Short Form, the HOME-21, reflecting historical changes in family composition and caregiver roles, norms about the acceptability of different forms of discipline, and children's digital environments. Using data from two samples of parents of children ages 0-17 (Fast Track [FT], N = 553, age = 33.8, 49.2% female, 48.1% Black, 51.9% White/other; Great Smoky Mountains Study [GSMS], N = 722, age = 37.2, 54.7% female, 67.6% White, 6.6% Black, 25.8% American Indian), we assess the utility of the HOME-21 with descriptive statistics and correlations with a range of demographic, family context, parenting, and child adjustment measures. Higher HOME-21 scores were correlated with obtaining a high school diploma or equivalency diploma (in GSMS only), having 4 or more years of college, and household income. HOME-21 was also correlated with having a more favorable family context indexed by fewer stressful life events (in FT only), less household food insecurity, lower household chaos, and more perceived social support. Higher HOME-21 scores were correlated with better parenting in the form of parental acceptance, positive parenting, warm involvement, appropriate and consistent discipline, verbal discussion, less physical aggression, and greater parental self-efficacy. Higher HOME-21 scores were correlated with better child adjustment in terms of fewer emotional and conduct problems, less hyperactivity, and more prosocial behavior. The HOME-21 has utility for use in future studies of children's home environments in the 21st century. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Supplemental Material for A Longitudinal Study of Families Formed Through Third-Party Assisted Reproduction: Mother–Child Relationships and Child Adjustment From Infancy to Adulthood

Supplemental Material for A Longitudinal Study of Families Formed Through Third-Party Assisted Reproduction: Mother–Child Relationships and Child Adjustment From Infancy to Adulthood

The Effectiveness of Play Therapy on Improving Emotion Regulation and Social Adjustment of Students Addicted to Online Games

Background and Aim: Using online games has many negative emotional and social consequences. Therefore, the present research was conducted with the aim of determining the effectiveness of play therapy on improving emotion regulation and social adjustment of students addicted to online games. Methods: This study in terms of purpose was applied and in terms of implementation method was quasi-experimental with a pre-test, post-test and follow-up design with a control group. The research population was the fifth grade students of district 2 of Sari city in the 2021-22 academic years. The sample size based on G Power software for each group was determined 15 people, who this number was selected by purposive sampling method and by random method replaced into two experimental and control groups. The experimental group 8 sessions of 90 minute underwent the play therapy, and during this time the control group did not receive any education. The data were collected with addiction to online games questionnaire (Wang &amp; Chang, 2002), emotion regulation questionnaire for children and adolescents (Gullone and Taffe, 2012) and children's social adjustment scale (Dokhanchi, 1998) and were analyzed by methods of variance analysis by repeated measurement and Bonferroni post hoc test in SPSS-26 software. Results: The findings showed that the play therapy improved the emotion regulation (reappraisal and suppression) and social adjustment of students addicted to online games, and the results remained in the follow-up phase (P&lt;0.001). Conclusion: The results indicated the effectiveness of play therapy and its durability on improving emotion regulation and social adjustment of students addicted to online games. Therefore, specialists and therapists can use play therapy along with other treatment methods to improve psychological characteristics, especially to improve emotion regulation and social adjustment.

Child, teacher and preschool characteristics and child-teacher relationships in Greek preschools

Three dimensions of child–teacher relationships (derived from the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale) closeness, conflict and dependency have been conceptualized and investigated. In individualistic cultures a close relationship has been associated with children's academic performance and behavioural adjustment, conflictual relationships have been associated with maladjustment and externalising behaviours, and the dependency dimension has been negatively associated with closeness. We expand previous studies by first investigating the factor structure of the STRs amongst 2,130 preschool children and their 267 teachers in a collectivistic culture, Greece. Second, we investigated effects of child (gender, age, country of origin and special educational needs), teacher (teacher gender, age and affective well-being), and preschool characteristics (school-type, number of children, observed quality using the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised (ECERS-R), on STRS.Using exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM) adjusting for differences between preschools we replicated the three-factor solution of the STRS. Consistent with previous studies in collectivistic cultures, closeness and dependency were positively (not negatively) associated. Children's gender and teachers’ affective well-being were found to be consistently associated with all three dimensions of the STRS. In conclusion, the STRS can capture the relationship accurately in a Greek early years setting, and the analysis has demonstrated that the three STRS dimensions are associated with different child and teacher characteristics.

Parental Acceptance as a Predictor of Behavioural Adjustment among Primary School Pupils in Kisii Central Sub-County, Kenya

The present study sought to investigate the extent parental displayed acceptance predicts behavioural adjustment among pupils in primary schools in Kisii central Sub-County, Kenya. The study was guided by the Object relations theory and supported attachment theory. The study adopted mixed method approach in which the embedded research design was used. To obtain the sample for the study, the study used cluster sampling, stratified sampling and simple random sampling techniques. The target population comprised of 14876 pupils, 10582 parents, 229 deputy head teachers and 218 guidance and counselling teachers. The sample size for the study consisted of 374 pupils, 30 parents, 30 deputy head teachers and 30 guidance and counselling teachers. The study also used questionnaires and interview schedules to gather data. In analysing qualitative data, the study used thematic analysis while descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were used to analyse quantitative data. The study established that there was statistically significant positive correlation (r=.552, n=356, p&lt;.05) between parental degree of displayed acceptance and learners’ overall behavioural adjustment. It was further revealed that there were statistical significant (p&lt;.05) positive correlation between parental degree of displayed acceptance and all the five aspects of behavioural adjustment (Emotion Symptoms Conduct Problem, Hyper-creativity, Peer relationship Problem and Pro-social Behaviour) explored into. However, all the correlations were weak but it was evident that conduct problem adjustment reflected the highest correlation (r=.448), while peer problem adjustment had the least correlations (r=.331) to parental degree of displayed acceptance. From the regression analysis, it was also established that parental displayed acceptance alone accounted for 30.5% of the variation in overall behavioural adjustment among the pupils. In addition, linear regression reveal that if the parental display of acceptance was improved by one standard deviation, then perceived scores in level of overall behaviour adjustment of children would improve by .552 standard deviation units. Similarly, if improve their parental display of acceptance by one unit then the level of overall behaviour adjustment among the children would improve by .301 units. From the qualitative findings, it was found that parental psychological unavailability, negative criticism and over-emotional were associated with pupils’ behavioural maladjustments.

A Longitudinal Studies on the Relationship among the Rumination, Children’s Perception of Parenting and School Adjustment in Late Childhood

A Longitudinal Studies on the Relationship among the Rumination, Children’s Perception of Parenting and School Adjustment in Late Childhood

Impact of Social Support on the Psychosocial Adjustment of Children Living with a Disability (CLWD) as Perceived by Parents in the Lagos Metropolis

Disability in Africa is usually viewed as a consequence of evil. Thus, people living with disabilities tend to be treated with discrimination and stigmatization, which then leads to the neglect of their needs. A majority of children in this group are helpless and unable to function effectively. Hence, giving them the support they need is important to help them live a purposeful life. This research thus sought to determine the impact of social support on the psychosocial adjustment of children living with disabilities (CLWDs) as perceived by parents in the Lagos metropolis. It examined the differences in the parents’ perceptions based on gender, age, and educational attainment. The study was a descriptive survey of the ex-post facto design where a multi-stage sampling technique was used to select the respondents. The final sample comprised 384 parents in the Lagos metropolis who responded to a 20-item researcher-developed questionnaire on perceived impact of social support (with α = .72 reliability estimate). An independent samples t-test testing for gender differences in parents’ perception and two sets of ANOVAs were used to test three null hypotheses at the .05 confidence level. The results revealed that increased self-esteem, positive behavioural adjustment and improved mental health were perceived by Lagos parents to be the most important impact factors of social support on the psychosocial adjustment of CLWDs. Gender and educational attainment did not exercise any influence on perceived impact, but parents’ perception of it did differ significantly by age group where older parents perceived a greater impact than did younger parents. It was, therefore, concluded that social support (i.e., in terms of quality, type and amount) is significant for CLWDs to make the psychosocial adjustment needed in their lives. With such support, they can be useful to themselves and contribute meaningfully to the development of society. On this basis, family members and other support providers should give adequate attention to the needs of children living with disabilities.

Parenting Program: Its Impact on Students' Religious Character in Integrated Islamic Elementary Schools

An effective public health approach can help evaluate the effectiveness of parenting programs in reducing child maltreatment. Parenting can show effectiveness in improving children's emotional and behavioral adjustment. Parenting programs are useful for parents to add insight and awareness about appropriate child development. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the parenting program on the religious character of students at Ar Rahman Jati Agung integrated Islamic elementary school. The method used is quantitative method. The sampling technique used. Purposive sampling. Data collection methods are questionnaires and documentation. The results of the f test simultaneously sig value 0.001 0.05 and the value of f count 8.469 3.16, then there is an influence of the parenting program and parenting on the religious character of students at SDIT Ar Rahman Jati Agung. The coefficient of determination test results show 22% which means that the effect is in the low category.

Culturally Responsive, Targeted Social Media Marketing to Facilitate Engagement with a Digital Parenting Program

Latinx families who have experienced immigration are often exposed to traumatic experiences before, during, and after migration. Exposure to trauma is associated with health challenges, however responsive and supportive parenting can strengthen adjustment of children who have experienced adversity. Systemic barriers in the U.S. make accessing parenting interventions difficult for immigrant Latinx families. This study investigated the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of a culturally tailored, direct-to-consumer (DTC) social media marketing campaign to engage Latinx parents who have resettled in the U.S with a digital parenting program, Parenting in the Moment. Video and graphic advertisements were delivered on a prominent social media platform in English and Spanish, with each advertisement employing varying messaging tactics. The campaign reached a total of 2,902,440 viewers and engaged 41,835 people who clicked on the link to the parenting program’s webpage. Each link click cost an average of $0.71. Advertisement type and language was associated with advertisement link click, with videos and advertisements in Spanish receiving more engagement compared with English and graphic advertisements. When analyzed separately, the engagement with each video theme differed within English and Spanish advertisements. The current study serves as the first step to understanding the use of digital DTC marketing to engage parents who have experienced immigration with parenting services. Findings support culturally tailored, social media marketing as a cost-effective strategy for increasing access to and engagement with parenting programs for immigrant families.

The importance of parent self-regulation and parent-child coregulation in research on parental discipline.

Parent self-regulation is multifaceted, involving emotional, cognitive, and biological processes that support or constrain parenting behavior. It is highly relevant to disciplinary contexts in which parents' regulatory difficulties can contribute to harsh discipline, which is linked to children's maladjustment. In this article, we address why parents' self-regulation is an essential focus for basic and applied research on parental discipline. We emphasize the need to 1) incorporate and test multiple domains of parent self-regulation to understand their respective and interactive contributions and 2) understand how parent self-regulation interfaces with parent-child coregulation in delineating mechanistic pathways of the effects of harsh discipline on children's adjustment. These foci will more fully inform the etiology of children's maladjustment related to harsh discipline and knowledge regarding specific, malleable intervention targets aimed at reducing harsh discipline.

Teacher-child racial congruence and young children's preschool adjustment

The purpose of this study was to explore how adjusted preschoolers were to preschool when their teachers were either racially congruent or racially incongruent and whether gender and moderated these associations. In this study, 259 preschoolers (50% boys; Mage = 53.84 months; 63% White, 37% Black) in 44 classrooms at 16 federally- and privately-funded centers/preschools were rated for their adjustment to preschool using teacher (N = 44; 100% women, 52% White, 38% Black, 2% Asian, 5% American Indian/Alaskan Native, 2% Latine) reports and direct child assessments. Multi-level structural equation modeling was used to simultaneously address the non-independence of the data by estimating higher-level variance components (i.e., variance on a total of six preschool adjustment outcomes out due to the classroom and due to the center) as well as correlated outcomes. Accounting for classroom-level variance as well as school-, classroom-, and child-level covariates, these analyses revealed main effects for gender and teacher-child racial congruence, and not for race, but higher-order interactions were significant. White girls with White teachers scored higher than White girls with Black teachers on four outcomes. Black girls with Black teachers scored higher than Black girls with White teachers on three outcomes and lower on two outcomes. White boys with White teachers scored lower than White boys with Black teachers on three outcomes. Black boys with Black teachers scored lower than Black boys with White teachers on five outcomes and higher on one outcome. Magnitudes of associations found ranged from small to large across the analyses. These findings add to the growing literature concerning teacher racial congruence suggesting its association with preschool adjustment may be moderated by race and gender of the child. More research is needed to understand the mechanisms accounting for these associations.