Children's Sleepwear Research Articles

Multicenter assessment of burn team injury prevention knowledge.

Engaging burn professionals to utilize "teachable moments" and provide accurate fire safety and burn prevention (FSBP) education is essential in reducing injury incidence. Minimal data is available regarding burn clinicians' evidence-based FSBP knowledge. A committee of prevention professionals developed, pilot-tested, and distributed a 52-question online survey assessing six major categories: demographical information (n = 7); FSBP knowledge (n = 24); home FSBP practices (n = 6); burn center FSBP education (n = 7); self-assessed competence and confidence in providing FSBP education (n = 2); and improving ABA reach (n = 6). Responses with <50% completion of FSBP knowledge section were excluded. Total group's (TG) mean FSBP score of 61.5% was used to define and compare underperformers (UP). After excluding 36 incomplete responses, test scores ranged: TG (n = 427) 21-88% and UP (n = 183) 21-58%. Ten FSBP knowledge questions covering seven topics were incorrectly answered by >50% of TG. ANOVA showed self-reported competence and confidence in providing FSBP education were not good predictors of FSBP scores, but staff with <2 years experience scored lower. Over 90% of TG wants FSBP fact sheets for patient education. Burn professionals have a responsibility to educate patients, families, and communities on FSBP. Team members report competence and confidence in their ability to provide FSBP education. However, this multicenter survey demonstrates the need for professional training on best practices in injury prevention, specifically targeting knowledge gaps on: smoke alarms, fire-safe cigarettes, children's sleepwear, burn/fire epidemiology, fireworks, bathing/scald injuries, and residential sprinklers. Based on these findings, FSBP educational materials will be created.

An evaluation of the impact of exemptions to the children's sleepwear flammability standards on burn injuries to children

AbstractIn 1996, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) amended the children's sleepwear flammability standards to exempt sleepwear sized for infants aged nine months or younger and tight‐fitting sleepwear for older children. The amendments were developed in response to an apparent preference for untreated cotton garments by many parents and difficulties in enforcing the pre‐amendment standards. However, they were adopted only after CPSC concluded that they would provide consumers a wider selection of children's sleepwear without diminishing the protection provided by the pre‐amendment standards. The amendments became effective in 1997, but remained controversial, with some interested parties believing that the exemptions would substantially reduce the level of safety for children. To address these concerns, and in cooperation with the American Burn Association and Shriners Hospitals for Children, the CPSC initiated a national study of child clothing‐related burn injuries treated in burn center hospitals. From 2003 through 2005, the CPSC collected information on 475 such injuries. This study evaluates the burn center data to help determine the safety effects of the amendments to the sleepwear standards. The results provide no evidence of increased risk of burn injury associated with the exemptions from the sleepwear standards. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Children's sleepwear: relaxation of the Consumer Product Safety Commission's flammability standards.

The Consumer Product Safety Commission voted on April 30, 1996, to relax the existing children's sleepwear flammability standard under the Flammable Fabrics Act. The new amendments will permit the sale of tight-fitting children's sleepwear and sleepwear for infants aged 9 months or younger-even if the garments do not meet the flammability standards ordinarily applicable to such sleepwear. The relaxed standards became effective January 1, 1997. These changes have the potential to increase the number of childhood injuries and deaths resulting from burns associated with children's sleepwear. Burn care practitioners and fire prevention educators must understand the significance of these changes and their associated impact. It is essential that this information be disseminated throughout communities to make the public aware of the potential hazards emanating from these changes. Furthermore, organized and systematic data gathering and appropriate pressure should be exerted on the Commissioners of the Consumer Product Safety Commission to force a reversal of the newly amended regulations.

Peanut Children's Sleepwear case

This article presents a case and teaching materials based upon a real-life situation. Tris, a flame-retarding chemical, was found in a number of children's pajamas years after the chemical was discovered to be carcinogenic and subsequently banned from use.

Consumer response to the tris controversy: A research study

The purpose of the research was to study the possible long-term effects of the public controversy that arose when the most widely used flame retardant (FR) finish. Tris, was first identified as a potential carcinogen. Parents of children enrolled in 15 selected nursery schools and day care centers in Rhode Island were surveyed to determine changes in their practices and in their attitudes toward the use of FR finishes for children's sleepwear. Almost 85% of the 269 respondents had heard or read about problems with FR chemicals. Of these, only 68% remembered that Tris was considered to be a carcinogen and/or health hazard and only 20% reported appropriate changes, such as reading labels, in their purchasing behavior. Absence of Health Risk was the primary consideration used in the purchase of children's sleepwear followed, in order, by Flame Retardancy, Comfort, Durability. Price, Ease of Care and Attractiveness. Despite the problems with Tris, most respondents felt strongly that FR garments should be available for a variety of population groups. They were less convinced that the government should set flammability standards and the majority wanted the freedom to choose between flame retardant and non-flame retardant garments for themselves and their children. Cluster and chi square analyses based on the criteria used in the selection of children's sleepwear showed seven distinct patterns of response but few significant differences between the clusters in respect to opinions and practices. Additional chi square analyses did, however, show some relationships between demographic variables and respondents' shopping practices, understanding of terminology, sources of information and opinions regarding the importance of FR garments and the expansion of government regulation. Many consumers appeared to be confused by the controversy. Specific recommendations for dealing with such problems need to be presented in a variety of media in order to reach different segments of the population; the often misunderstood term “flame resistant” should be retired from use; some non-toxic FR garments should be made available to all population groups: labels and promotional materials should be more informative; consideration should be given to the long-range health, safety and cost effectiveness of government regulations and more research should be conducted to increase understanding of consumer behavior.

A blend for children's sleepwear incorporating inherently flame-retardant fiber

A blend for children's sleepwear incorporating inherently flame-retardant fiber

Children's sleepwear flammability standards: have they worked?

Summary A study of children admitted to the Shriners Burns Unit in Galveston over a period between 1966 and 1977 was conducted to assess the effect of Federal standards regulating flammability of children's sleepwear. The data suggest that the standards have been successful in reducing burn injuries due to ignition of sleepwear in children.

Economic Analysis of Current Issues in Consumer Product Safety: Fabric Flammability

Two major issues in the area of consumer product safety are who should protect the consumer and how much protection should be provided. Underlying both these questions are concerns for the consumer's freedom of choice and efficiency. Is the consumer the most efficient risk reducer or should risk reduction be left to the regulatory authorities? Given resources constraints which preclude the attainment of 100 percent protection, what is the optimal degree of protection. This paper applied economic analysis, including cost‐benefit analysis, to an examination of both issues. The advantages and disadvantages of the informed buyer approach versus the regulatory approach to the assignment of responsibility for consumer protection are first discussed. Cost‐benefit analysis is then applied to an evaluation of actual and hypothetical flammability standards for children's sleepwear and clothing. The two sleepwear standards proved cost effective in contrast to the two clothing standards where the costs of providing additional protection to the cosumer far exceeded the benefits. The results indicate the feasibility and utility of cost‐benefit analysis in determining how much protection should be provided.

Cost‐Benefit Analysis of Flammability Standards

There has been increased interest in consumer protection in recent years, particularly in the area of product safety. Deaths and injuries involving consumer products pose serious social and economic problems in the United States. It is estimated that approximately 20 million Americans are injured each year in the home as a result of accidents involving consumer products. These accidents result in 30,000 deaths; 110,000 persons are permanently disabled (National Commission on Product Safety). In response to public concern for product safety, the Consumer Product Safety Commission was established in 1973 and granted broad authority to issue and enforce standards over more than 10,000 products. The necessity for product regulations is based on several factors. First, the consumer may be uninformed of the underlying hazard and hence may not perceive the need for protection. Second, the consumer who elects to live dangerously may also be exposing others to the same risk, e.g., a cigarette smoker who involves others in a fire. The increased interdependence of consumption which characterizes a modem industrial society means that the right to choose and the right to safety sometimes conflict. Finally, part of the cost of accidents is incurred by the taxpayer rather than by the individual. In both the second and third instances, underevaluation of potential benefits by an individual consumer may result in a less than optimum level of for society as a whole. The failure of the marketplace, for the reasons mentioned above, means that corrective action is required. Such actions may include improving the performance of the marketplace, e.g., consumer information, or imposing regulations. The role of product regulations in protecting the consumer has been the subject of considerable discussion in recent years (Cornell, Noll, Weingast; Dickerson and Reed; Lowrance; Mishan; Oi; Weston). Questions have been raised concerning the cost effectiveness of regulations compared to other consumer protection programs such as consumer information, and the role of the consumer and producer in the consumer protection process. Weston (p. 160), while acknowledging the necessity for regulations, cautions that the formulation of new standards should compare trade-offs between degrees of safety, alternative methods of ~chieving them, additional costs and their effect on consumer usage, and relate all of these to the potential benefits. One technique for estimating the gains and losses from consumer protection programs is cost-benefit analysis. This paper investigates the role of cost-benefit analysis in determining whether product regulations are in the public interest and applies such analysis to an evaluation of flammability standards for children's sleepwear, sizes 7-14.

Response Profiles of Flame-Retardant Fabric Hand

The assessment of fabric hand is influenced by three variables—namely: products, evaluators, and end-uses. In this study the influence of perceiver variable on the hand preference of flame-retardant fabrics for children's sleepwear was evaluated. Subject hand ratings and response profiles as indices of perceiver preference were analyzed. The response profile was determined as a linear function of three stimulus values of flexural rigidity, coefficient of friction, and compact ness and subject hand rating. The results of the response profiles indicated that all three panel groups chose roughness for all four categories of test fabrics. Softness was preferred for all instances except for the medium-weight woven category by homemaker and student groups. For compactness-openness, the trained panel chose compactness for the flannels, wovens, and knit category, whereas homemaker and student groups chose openness for the plain wovens. knits, and overall sleep wear category.

Another Flame Retardant, Tris-(1,3-Dichloro-2-Propyl)-Phosphate, and Its Expected Metabolites Are Mutagens

A flame retardant used in children's sleepwear, tris-(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (Fyrol FR2) is a mutagen in the Salmonella-mammalian tissue homogenate test after it has been activated by mouse or rat liver homogenate. The expected enzymatic hydrolysis product, 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol, is similarly a mutagen after activation by liver homogenate. A proposed metabolite of the flame retardant, 1,3-dichloro-2-propanone, is a potent mutagen in the absence of such activation. A flame retardant with similar structure, tris-(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate (tris-BP), was shown previously to be a mutagen, to cause sterility in animals, to be a carcinogen, and to be absorbed through human skin. These and other flame retardants have characteristic nuclear magnetic resonance spectra that can be used to determine which flame retardant is present in commercially purchased sleepwear. Sleepwear treated with tris-BP, Fyrol FR2, and other chemical additives was being sold in late 1977.

Renal and testicular damage following dermal application of the flame retardant tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate.

Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate (TRIS) was the most popular flame retardant chemical used in children's sleepwear. Acute toxicological data indicated that TRIS was low in toxicity. Since human exposure to TRIS-treated fabrics could occur for long periods of time, a subchronic study was undertaken to obtain additional information. The dermal application of TRIS (neat) at a dose of 1 ml/kg (2.27 g/kg) to the clipped backs of albino rabbits, once each week for 3 months, resulted in testicular atrophy and chronic interstitial nephritis in males. Females did not show any adverse effects.

Flammability of Children's Sleepwear: Evaluation of Selected Construction Features1

The effects of selected construction techniques upon the flammability of certain fabrics used in the manufacture of children's sleepwear are reported. Investigations include all combinations of seven fabrics and five construction variables. Construction variables reported include: self‐fabric ruffles, embroidered insertion trim, and edge‐finished seams using three thread types. For each flame retardant (FR) fabric tested, the addition of embroidered insertion trim resulted in a flammability failure and the presence of a cotton seam was accompanied by an increase in char length. A residual flame was noted for FR acetate/polyester tricot with the addition of a self‐ruffle, a cotton seam, or an embroidered insertion.

Cost Benefit Analysis of Consumer Product Safety Standards

This paper investigates the role of cost‐benefit analysis in evaluating consumer product safety standards and applys such analysis to an evaluation of flammability standards for children's sleepwear. The cost of safety standards includes the costs of standard development and enforcement and the changes in producer and consumer surpluses due to product regulation. The benefits from safety standards are the reduction in product accidents and the direct and indirect costs of such accidents. The cost of the O‐6X Children's Sleepwear Standard was based on the change in consumer surplus since it was assumed that supply was perfectly elastic. The benefits were due primarily to the reduction in burn injuries. Cost‐benefit ratios ranged from 0.62 to 0.84 assuming that the standard provided 100% protection. The cost‐benefit ratios also indicate the degree of protection required by the standard. Thus a ratio of 0.62 implies that 62% protection is required if benefits are to equal costs.

Radiographic artifacts caused by the laundering of flame-retardant materials.

Federal law now mandates the use of flame retardants in children's sleepwear, and regulations are pending in several areas to require their use in all hospital fabrics. These flame retardants produce radiographic artifacts due to their alteration of fabric surface properties. Knowledge of the cause of these problems and their solution should be of help in radiographic interpretation and should save patient expense and radiographic exposure.

CHILDREN'S SLEEPWEAR CONTROVERSY: DATA FROM A BURN UNIT

Recent publicity about the possible carcinogenicity of “TRIS,” used in some flame-resistant children's sleepwear, questions the value of the July, 1973, federal regulations regarding the flammability of children's sleepwear, sizes 0-6x. In a 3-½ year period (Jan.'70-June'73), 29 children under 7 years of age were treated at the SBI for injuries sustained by the ignition of their sleepwear in ways other than in house fires; during a later period of identical length (July'73-Dec.'76), 11 children were treated for injuries sustained in this manner. (Total acute admissions, earlier period: 309; later period: 317.) Most accidents involved momentary contact with an ignition source: stoves (18), matches/cigarette lighters (15), candles (3), heaters (2), other (2). The behavior of children in these situations was contrary to those which would minimize harm. Most children ran, the result being flame spread and more extensive burns. Children's sleepwear, sizes 7-14, has been regulated in Massachusetts since Dec.'73. From 1970-1973, there were 11 non-house fire sleepwear admissions of children, ages 7-14; from 1974-1976, there were 5. The decline in such sleepwear admissions for all ages is marked: 1974=10 cases; 1975=3 cases; 1976=1 case. Of these cases, only one (1976) involved flame-resistant pajamas; that patient received a comparatively small burn. Further, three children who received their burns in night-time house fires demonstrated the considerable protective characteristics of flame-resistant sleepwear.

Toxicity to fish of flame retardant fabrics immersed in their water. Part I.

A number of commercial and candidate flame retardants were studied with regard to their toxicity to fish when released from fabrics immersed in their water. Immersion of laundered or unlaundered flame retardant 100% polyester or polyester blend fabrics used in children's sleepwear in water containing goldfish resulted in release of the anticholin-esterase flame retardant TDBPP (tris (2, 3-dibromopropyl) phosphate) and death of all fish within 24 hours. TDBPP undergoes loss of HBr in water and production of a metabolite.

Evaluation of chemical flame retardants for carcinogenic potential.

Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride (THPC) and Pyroset TKP, which is the mixed acetate/phosphate of the same phosphonium base, are widely used in flame-retardant cotton fabrics, particularly in children's sleepwear. THPC degrades thermally and under certain chemical conditions to yield hydrochloric acid and formaldehyde (CH2O). In solution, the latter two compounds are in equilibrium with the known potent carcinogen bis(chloromethyl)ether (BCME). A sample of commercial THPC contained from 4% (at pH 0.4) to 14% (at pH greater than 4.5) free CH2O. The material, as supplied by the manufacter, showed pH 0.4. Gas chromatographic analysis of aqueous commercial THPC did not reveal any peak chracteristic of BCME under conditions where 0.1 ppm of the material can be detected. Application to mouse skin of THPC ( 2 mg in 0.1 ml DMSO) and of Pryset TKP (7 mg in 0.1 ml DMSO), three times per week for 400 days with 20 female ICR/Ha Swiss mice per group, gave one squamous carcinoma in the THPC-treated group. THPC was inactive as an initiating agent in two-stage mouse skin carcinogenesis with phorbol myristate acetate as promoter. Both agents were active as tumor promoters, using a single application of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (20 microng in 0.1 ml acetone) as initiator. With THPC as promoter (2 mg in 0.1 ml DMSO, thrice weekly) 3 of 20 mice bore papillomas which progressed to squamous carcinoma. With Pyroset TKP as promoter (7 mg in 0.1 ml DMSO) 7 of 20 mice bore papillomas of which two progressed to squamous carcinoma.

The Influence of Thread Mass and Fabric Mass on Seam Flammability

A nomenclature and procedure is introduced for quantifying the thread mass and fabric mass contained in a given seam. The ratio of thread mass to fabric mass, defined as mass ratio (MR), is compared to seam flammability, as mea sured by DOC FF 3-71 (flammability standard for children's sleepwear). Thread mass values are initially determined by weighting seams before and after thread removal, also permitting subsequent calculation of a characteristic thread length. Fabric mass is calculated from model geometry of simple seams. Preliminary investigations illustrate that the relationship between mass ratio and seam char length varies with the types of fabric and thread used. With FR-thermoplastic fabrics the char length of cotton and corespun thread-sewn seams increases proportionately with increasing MR, while polyester thread-sewn seams are insensitive to MR. For an FR-cotton fabric, seam char length increases with MR for certain seam types with all threads tested.

Evaluation of the Hand of Certain Flame-Retardant Fabrics

Three types of flame-retardant fabrics available for children's sleepwear were evaluated for fabric hand and ab sorbency. The fabric hand was determined as a linear function of objective measurements of flexural rigidity, coefficient of friction, and compactness and subjective hand rating of the test panel. The analysis of response profile indicated that roughness and openness were preferred to smoothness and compactness for four sets of sleepwear fabrics evaluated. The expected utility value of the test fabric was 0.49, and the level of quality of the IDP fabric was neither high nor low; therefore, there was an equal chance of the class product being accepted or rejected by consumers. The absorb ency of , the test fabrics measured by an average wetting time varied considerably, and it seems from the test result that it was mainly influenced by fiber content and not related to flame-retardant finishes or additives.