Observations Of Children Research Articles

Family Therapy for Conduct Disorders

Low levels of parental skill and cooperation are the prominent roots of arrested socialization, and a lack of appreciation for intimate and gratifying human relationships is evident in children with CD. The relational problems are exaggerated further by the child's observation of chronic parental discord and internalization of a family image constructed around intrafamilial conflict and isolation. Skills deficits in parental and marital communication and problem solving and conflicts in these relationships play significant roles in producing family dysfunction. The low level of parental differentiation and identity formation plays a fundamental role in family dysfunction by interfering with the development of an adequate self-image, self-esteem, and internal codes of behavior in the child. The transmission of parental antisocial tendencies to their children is facilitated by the low level of differentiation between parent and child. Family treatment should focus on enhancing cooperation between parents and children and between parents as co-parents and as a couple. Enhancing parent management skills can undermine the use of coercive, punitive, and impulsive interactions in the families. The higher divorce rate in parents of children with CD should be addressed with parents directly and early in treatment with the hope of mobilizing the rehabilitative and cooperative marital forces. In terms of future directions, family studies should address and incorporate the expanding knowledge of biologic and psychologic characteristics of children with CD and the possible impact of such characteristics in undermining family development and integrity. Such investigations should include the following information: The role of sustained and intense aggression in some children on family functioning and development. The possible role of diminished response to punishment and excessive search for gratification in children with CD. The role of the child with CD in promoting marital and family discord and divorce. The role of neurotransmitters (such as serotonin) in the production of irritability, provocativeness, coercive family processes, and subsequent depression in the caregiver or the child. Effective models of intervention with children with CD in hospitals and residential treatment centers.

Pain assessment in a children's A&E: a critical analysis.

In this particular children's A&E department it is evident that pain assessment is a high priority among the nursing staff. Pain is routinely assessed on every child during triage, so analgesia is given as soon as possible and children are not left suffering pain for an unnecessary length of time. However, because pain is not routinely reassessed it is often unknown whether the pain has been fully relieved. It appears that not all the resources available for assessing a child's pain are utilised, resulting in the possibility that not all aspects of a child's pain are assessed. Pain is assessed using the child's self reports or nurses' observations. It has been shown that these are not always appropriate and there is need to use a number of different tools for assessing a child's pain. There is also the need for a validated tool to assess pain in younger children. When referring back to McGrath and Unruh's (1987) definitions of pain measurement and pain assessment, it could be concluded that nurses in the children's A&E department measure pain, but, due to the lack of emphasis which is placed on the different aspects of pain and the limited range of tools which are used, they do not assess pain effectively. In order for pain assessment to be improved, nurses need to be made aware of the different aspects of pain and different tools which are available to assess them in children. This could be initiated by implementing the RCN (1999) guidelines for pain recognition and assessment in children.

Effects of Ambient Air Pollution on Symptoms of Asthma in Seattle-Area Children Enrolled in the CAMP Study

We observed a panel of 133 children (5-13 years of age) with asthma residing in the greater Seattle, Washington, area for an average of 58 days (range 28-112 days) during screening for enrollment in the Childhood Asthma Management Program (CAMP) study. Daily self-reports of asthma symptoms were obtained from study diaries and compared with ambient air pollution levels in marginal repeated measures logistic regression models. We defined days with asthma symptoms as any day a child reported at least one mild asthma episode. All analyses were controlled for subject-specific variables [age, race, sex, baseline height, and FEV(1) PC(20) concentration (methacholine provocative concentration required to produce a 20% decrease in forced expiratory volume in 1 sec)] and potential time-dependent confounders (day of week, season, and temperature). Because of variable observation periods for participants, we estimated both between- and within-subject air pollutant effects. Our primary interest was in the within-subject effects: the effect of air pollutant excursions from typical levels in each child's observation period on the odds of asthma symptoms. In single-pollutant models, the population average estimates indicated a 30% [95% confidence interval (CI), 11-52%] increase for a 1-ppm increment in carbon monoxide lagged 1 day, an 18% (95% CI, 5-33%) increase for a 10-microg/m(3) increment in same-day particulate matter < 1.0 microm (PM(1.0)), and an 11% (95% CI, 3-20%) increase for a 10-microg/m(3) increment in particulate matter < 10 microm (PM(10)) lagged 1 day. Conditional on the previous day's asthma symptoms, we estimated 25% (95% CI, 10-42%), 14% (95% CI, 4-26%), and 10% (95% CI, 3-16%) increases in the odds of asthma symptoms associated with increases in CO, PM(1.0), and PM(10), respectively. We did not find any association between sulfur dioxide (SO(2)) and the odds of asthma symptoms. In multipollutant models, the separate pollutant effects were smaller. The overall effect of an increase in both CO and PM(1. 0) was a 31% (95% CI, 11-55%) increase in the odds of symptoms of asthma. We conclude that there is an association between change in short-term air pollution levels, as indexed by PM and CO, and the occurrence of asthma symptoms among children in Seattle. Although PM effects on asthma have been found in other studies, it is likely that CO is a marker for vehicle exhaust and other combustion by-products that aggravate asthma.

Effects of ambient air pollution on symptoms of asthma in Seattle-area children enrolled in the CAMP study.

We observed a panel of 133 children (5-13 years of age) with asthma residing in the greater Seattle, Washington, area for an average of 58 days (range 28-112 days) during screening for enrollment in the Childhood Asthma Management Program (CAMP) study. Daily self-reports of asthma symptoms were obtained from study diaries and compared with ambient air pollution levels in marginal repeated measures logistic regression models. We defined days with asthma symptoms as any day a child reported at least one mild asthma episode. All analyses were controlled for subject-specific variables [age, race, sex, baseline height, and FEV(1) PC(20) concentration (methacholine provocative concentration required to produce a 20% decrease in forced expiratory volume in 1 sec)] and potential time-dependent confounders (day of week, season, and temperature). Because of variable observation periods for participants, we estimated both between- and within-subject air pollutant effects. Our primary interest was in the within-subject effects: the effect of air pollutant excursions from typical levels in each child's observation period on the odds of asthma symptoms. In single-pollutant models, the population average estimates indicated a 30% [95% confidence interval (CI), 11-52%] increase for a 1-ppm increment in carbon monoxide lagged 1 day, an 18% (95% CI, 5-33%) increase for a 10-microg/m(3) increment in same-day particulate matter < 1.0 microm (PM(1.0)), and an 11% (95% CI, 3-20%) increase for a 10-microg/m(3) increment in particulate matter < 10 microm (PM(10)) lagged 1 day. Conditional on the previous day's asthma symptoms, we estimated 25% (95% CI, 10-42%), 14% (95% CI, 4-26%), and 10% (95% CI, 3-16%) increases in the odds of asthma symptoms associated with increases in CO, PM(1.0), and PM(10), respectively. We did not find any association between sulfur dioxide (SO(2)) and the odds of asthma symptoms. In multipollutant models, the separate pollutant effects were smaller. The overall effect of an increase in both CO and PM(1. 0) was a 31% (95% CI, 11-55%) increase in the odds of symptoms of asthma. We conclude that there is an association between change in short-term air pollution levels, as indexed by PM and CO, and the occurrence of asthma symptoms among children in Seattle. Although PM effects on asthma have been found in other studies, it is likely that CO is a marker for vehicle exhaust and other combustion by-products that aggravate asthma.

Extrafamilial sexual abuse: treatment for child victims and their families

Objectives: To decrease the emotional distress of child victims of extrafamilial sexual abuse (ESA) and their families. To provide crisis intervention, individual and group treatment in response to an expressed need in the community. To pilot the use of group treatment for child victims of ESA under age 10. Method: This discussion describes intervention with a sample of 246 child victims, ages 2–14 years, and 323 parents who participated in the program from 1984 to 1991. This pilot project operated at a university medical facility and was located off campus in an outpatient child abuse center. Priority was given to child victims under age 7. Child victims and their families were evaluated after investigative interviews by law enforcement agencies were completed. A treatment plan was developed based on clinical assessment. Families participated in crisis counseling, individual treatment for the child victim and/or parent, Children’s Treatment Groups, Parent Support Groups, or were referred to other resources. Clinical assessment of treatment progress included weekly case review by child and parent therapists, video analysis and observation of Children’s Treatment Group sessions, consultation with parents and collateral contacts. Results: A family approach and services for parents in addition to intervention for child victims were determined to be key components in facilitating recovery. Clinical observations and client feedback showed positive outcomes for child victims and parents with crisis counseling, Children’s Treatment groups, and Parent Support Groups. The extent of intervention ranged from one session to 24 months with an average participation of 6–9 months. Follow up surveys were returned by parents for 48 child victims and results are reported. Themes, parallels in responses, and recovery factors for child victims and parents are discussed. Conclusions: The need for intervention and a community-based program was demonstrated by (1) the significant disruption in functioning that occurred for child victims of ESA and their families, (2) the risk for long term sequelae, (3) the high incidence of extrafamilial sexual abuse, and 4) the consistent, large number of requests for services. Family-centered crisis services, Children’s Treatment Groups, and Parent Support Groups can be effectively based at child advocacy centers, out patient care clinics, or other community agencies. The results of formal outcome measures and longitudinal studies is needed to determine how child victims and parents benefit from specific treatment modalities and to better guide the use of limited resources.

Methodological Problems in Direct Observation of Children's Dietary and Activity Behaviors

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in English; abstract also in Chinese.The purpose of this research paper is to report the methodological difficulties which resulted from a study first conducted in the US and replicated in Hong Kong. Using the Behavior of Eating and Activity for Children's Health Evaluation System (BEACHES). Forty participants between the age of 6 and 8 drawn from middle income areas of the city were selected. Eight research assistants set up 4 1-hour home observations and 6 20-minute observations in the school during the recess period. The implication of the present study is that the instrumentation and the method created interference to the extent that the research interval, in which the participants were observed, failed to represent the normal behavior patterns especially those related to dietary behaviors. Specifically, the interactive impact and the cultural differences undetected by the research instrument are significant problems which demand consideration for future direct observational research.本研究旨在討論應用「直接觀察法」在學童飮食及活動行爲研究時所出現的問題。採用BEACHES研究工具直接觀察本地四十位6至8歲學童在學校小息及家庭中的行爲模式。研究結果顯示在使用直接觀察法及BEACHES工具時所遇到的問題，體育同工在選擇應用同類的研究方法及工具時，應注意有關文化差異等問題。

Observation of Children's Physical Activity Levels during Primary School Physical Education Lessons

Thirty‐six PE lessons, involving twenty children aged between 7 and 11 years, were observed in one primary school using a method of continuous observation. The observations included 11 dance, 10 swimming and 15 games lessons. The children engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for 32% of the time. Of the three areas observed, dance lessons (41%) contained marginally more MVPA than games lessons (40%), but the MVPA associated with swimming lessons (9%) was much lower. The longest period of sustained physical activity was 12 minutes with only two children achieving a 10 minute period of MVPA. Given the recognised requirements for heart health in terms of physical activity the results of the study, if mirrored in other similar establishments, would suggest that physical education lessons, in terms of activity undertaken, have little to contribute to long term health.

Sex-role socialization: developmental influences on wife abuse

Themes central to sex-role socialization are traced, along with the processes by which dominance and female deference are developed. Gender differences in parent-child interactions, peer-group relations, classroom settings, children's observations of the marital dyad, and messages from television are examined. The link between sex-role socialization and the etiology and maintenance of wife abuse is discussed.

Children's observations, ideas, and the development of classroom theories about light

AbstractThe purpose of this study was to examine the interaction between children's observations of light and shadows and their developing theories in the context of a series of lessons in a third‐grade classroom. Detailed analysis of videotapes of the children's discussions of their investigations into light and shadows led to the finding that the children's observations of light led to the development of a limited theory about light that was largely useful in explaining classroom investigations. However, this theory of light was less helpful in helping them understanding shadow phenomena and was too limited to explain out‐of‐classroom observations of light and shadows.

Sex-role socialization: developmental influences on wife abuse.

Themes central to sex-role socialization are traced, along with the processes by which dominance and female deference are developed. Gender differences in parent-child interactions, peer-group relations, classroom settings, children's observations of the marital dyad, and messages from television are examined. The link between sex-role socialization and the etiology and maintenance of wife abuse is discussed.

Detection of intrafamilial child abuse: Children at intake at a children's observation home in India

Cross-cultural studies have brought awareness that child abuse is a global problem. This study sought to assess whether the abuse of children by caregivers/parents is a phenomenon that is prevalent in Indian society, where social workers and other human service professionals traditionally have not been sensitive to its occurrence. Interviews with 515 children brought to a Children's Observation Home in Bombay resulted in self-reports of physical violence from approximately 50% of the sample, and of these, over two-thirds reported the use of abusive violence. In addition, over 60% of the children who had run away from home cited violence by parents as the primary reason for their leaving, suggesting that this may be one of the variables adding to the numbers of street children in India. Feelings about perpetrators and implications of findings are discussed.

An assessment of the microsocial environment of children diagnosed as "sudden infant death" using the "process" inventory.

An assessment of the microsocial environment of infants dying unexpectedly was carried out using the Paediatric Review and Observation of Children's Environmental Support and Stimulation (PROCESS) inventory. We studied 48 families where the diagnosis of sudden infant death was confirmed by full necropsy and who died in St. petersburg from 1986 to 1991. A control group consisted of an equal number of age, sex and observer matched live controls from the same city. The infants presenting as unexpected deaths had significantly lower estimates of developmental stimulation, organisation, total parent questionnaire and clinical observation scores. The total PROCESS score values were also lower in the families with sudden infant death than in the controls. A defect in developmental stimulation may be a contributory factor in some babies presenting as unexpected infant deaths.

Problems Experienced by Talented Young Musicians as a Result of the Failure of Other Children to Value Musical Accomplishments

Eleven of 42 children aged 10 to 17 who participated in an interview study of the early lives of talented young musicians spontaneously remarked on problems they had experienced in connection with the failure of other children of their own age to value or appreciate the importance of musical accomplishments and the learning activities that contribute to expertise in music. The children's observations illustrate the nature of such problems, and suggest that for talented young people who are specialising in a particular area of expertise, difficulties of this kind may be more widespread and more severe than is generally appreciated.

A Service Program for Safe-Home Children

The authors describe an innovative program that provides services to women who have been battered and to their children. The program serves women and children in community-based safe homes for up to three months. Data are drawn from 49 families, including 81 children. The violence experienced by the families and the children's observation of and reaction to violence are described.

Regression, Practice, and Expectation Effects on the Revised Conners Teacher Rating Scale

This study investigated the influence of practice effects, regression toward the mean, teachers' expectations, and warm-up procedures on the Revised Conners Teacher Rating Scale. Sixty elementary school teachers viewed videotapes of 3 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disordered children on two or three occasions. The teachers rated each child on the Revised Conners directly after watching that child's videotaped classroom observation. The teachers were divided randomly into three groups: expectation, control, and warm-up. The data were analyzed by a “doubly” repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Results indicated that practice effects, regression, teachers' expectations, and warm-up procedures did not play a significant role in influencing teachers' repeated ratings of the 3 children. There were significant effects for the order of presentation of the children on the tapes at the time of the first rating. On the whole, findings lend support for the validity of the Revised Conners.

Children's Observations of Violence: I. Critical Issues in Child Development and Intervention Planning

Children are often the unintended or indirect victims of wife abuse as witnesses of this violence in their family. Current research on these children and a conceptual framework to understand how this violence affects their development are outlined. The implications of this research are discussed in terms of several intervention strategies. The importance of primary prevention programs in school systems is stressed.

Children's Observations of Violence: II. Clinical Implications for Children's Mental Health Professionals

This paper discusses the clinical implications of our current knowledge about children exposed to violence. It highlights a number of typical case scenarios in which mental health professionals have responded inadequately to the issue of violence. Alternative strategies for assessing and treating children exposed to violence are offered which have both therapeutic and preventative value. Finally, a family based assessment and treatment approach, which may be appropriate in a number of cases, is suggested.

Clinical Observations in Children after Prenatal Benzodiazepine Exposure

Eight children excessively exposed to benzodiazepines (BZD) in utero are described. Five of the 8 mothers admitted regular use of BZD and in 3 mothers, stored serum from early pregnancy could be analysed and found positive for BZD and its metabolite. All the children had similar dysmorphic features, in addition, 1 child had aplasia of one kidney and 2 had cleft palate. At follow-up 2 children had become microcephalic. 2 were severely mentally retarded, 5 had a mild mental retardation and only 1 was of normal intelligence. In a case-control study, 4 neonatal diagnoses of congenital malformations, in our experience characteristic of fetal BZD exposure, were chosen as inclusion criteria. In 8 of 18 cases, blood samples from early pregnancy were positive for BZD as compared to 2 of 60 control samples. An association between BZD-positive serum tests and the particular diagnoses could be demonstrated (p = 0.00006).

Mastery versus ability appraisal: a developmental study of children's observations of peers' work.

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that there is an age-related shift from mastery enhancement to relative ability assessment in the goal of social comparison. Children at ages 5, 7, and 10 made pictures with stickers under conditions of high or low concern with relative performance (competition/no competition) and high or low procedural ambiguity (free design/copying a drawing). The effects of the manipulations on frequency of glancing at the experimenter and the drawing were similar at all ages; competition enhanced glancing at peers, however, only at ages 7 and 10. The hypothesized shift in the function of social comparison was further supported by age differences in children's explanations for glancing at peers and by the pattern of intercorrelations between glances at the 3 targets and between glances and picture quality. The results indicate how mastery-based comparisons can promote mastery and performance and illustrate some costs older children may pay for their tendency to observe others primarily to assess relative ability.

Mastery versus Ability Appraisal: A Developmental Study of Children's Observations of Peers' Work

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that there is an age-related shift from mastery enhancement to relative ability assessment in the goal of social comparison. Children at ages 5, 7, and 10 made pictures with stickers under conditions of high or low concern with relative performance (competition/no competition) and high or low procedural ambiguity (free design/copying a drawing). The effects of the manipulations on frequency of glancing at the experimenter and the drawing were similar at all ages; competition enhanced glancing at peers, however, only at ages 7 and 10. The hypothesized shift in the function of social comparison was further supported by age differences in children's explanations for glancing at peers and by the pattern of intercorrelations between glances at the 3 targets and between glances and picture quality. The results indicate how mastery-based comparisons can promote mastery and performance and illustrate some costs older children may pay for their tendency to observe others primarily to assess relative ability.