Childhood Gender Identity Research Articles

Getting to grips with gender identity

Stephanie Thornton suggests that social construction plays a significant part in the development of children's gender identity.

P-283 - Childhood gender identity disorder: case report

Children with Gender Identity Disorder (GID) show a strong preference for sex-typed behaviors more characteristic of the opposite sex and a rejection or avoidance of sex-typed behaviors more characteristic of one's own sex. There are also signs of distress and discomfort about one's status as a boy or a girl, including verbal expressions of dislike or disgust about one's genital anatomy. The behaviors that characterize GID in children occur in concert, not in isolation. It is this behavioral patterning that is of clinical significance, and recognition of the patterning is extremely important in conducting a diagnostic assessment. The authors describe the case of a 6-year-old boy with GID. The clinical referral occurred 3 years after the onset of the condition, at the age of 6, when his parents begin to feel that the pattern of behavior was no longer a “phase” and worried about the implications of his symptoms in his academic and social life. This case illustrates some of the problems of the diagnosis, assessment, associated psychopathologies, developmental trajectories and therapeutic strategies for childhood GID, including parental considerations.

Influence of teacher–student interactions on kindergarten children's developing gender identity within the Pakistani urban classroom culture

In the current global push to explore the diverse and complex ways in which the school culture contributes to the shaping of young children's gender identity, early childhood teachers’ role in this process is an area of concern which has received limited attention. Furthermore, the schooling experiences of early years children in developing world contexts such as Pakistan remain largely absent. As such, this article discusses findings from a study investigating the role of women teachers’ practice in the construction of children's gender identities in the kindergarten classroom culture of one urban co‐education school in the highly gender‐segregated Pakistani context. Seven teachers and approximately 120 children were involved. Data collection included teacher interviews and observations of teaching practice. Data were qualitatively and quantitatively analysed. The complex and dynamic nature of the gendered classroom culture reflected the teachers’ active perpetuation of the dominant patriarchal ideologies in their practice. However, their practice also presented possibilities for change in unconscious and, occasionally, conscious attempts to push gender boundaries towards more equitable gender relationships. The teachers’ gendered practice has significant implications for children's evolving gender identity construction.

Childhood Gender Identity … Disorder? Developmental, Cultural, and Diagnostic Concerns

Childhood gender identity development is reviewed in the context of biological, environmental, cultural, and diagnostic factors. With the upcoming 5th revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the authors offer a critical consideration of childhood gender identity disorder, along with proposed diagnostic changes. They argue that meaningful understanding of issues surrounding gender identity is necessary for a conscientious assessment and diagnostic process that does not pathologize human diversity.

Ethnicity and gender in late childhood and early adolescence: Group identity and awareness of bias.

The current study examined awareness of gender and ethnic bias and gender and ethnic identity in 350 African American, White/European American, and Latino/Hispanic students (Mage = 11.21 years, SD = 1.59) from the 4th, 6th, and 8th grades of diverse middle and elementary schools. The study collected (a) qualitative data to best capture the types of bias that were most salient to children and (b) daily diaries and individual measures to examine the multiple components of children's gender and ethnic identities. Results revealed ethnic, gender, and grade-level differences in awareness of ethnic and gender bias. Overall, more children were aware of gender bias than ethnic bias. This effect was most pronounced among White/European American youths. Among those in 4th grade, African American and Latino youths were more likely to be aware of ethnic bias than were White/European American youths. Analyses also examined how awareness of bias was related to gender and ethnic identity. For example, children who had a salient and important gender identity, and a devalued ethnic identity, were less likely than other children to be aware of ethnic bias.

“I'm a Prius”: A Child Case of a Gender/Ethnic Hybrid

This article presents the treatment of a young gender nonconforming boy caught in the cross-fire of a gender and cultural warfare between his divorced parents. D.G., of mixed Mexican/American heritage, went through a course of therapy which is presented to illustrate the fluidity of a child's gender identity and expressions and the need to take a developmental approach that allows for the unfolding of a child's authentic gender self over time. The paper also emphasizes the importance of taking family effects into account as a child attempts to negotiate his or her authentic gender amidst parental responses and pressures.

Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation in People with Developmental Disabilities

The purpose of this descriptive study was to survey and compare. A sample of 32 people who have a developmental disability were asked to complete five questionnaires (i.e., demographics, sexual orientation, sexual history, recalled childhood gender identity and adult gender identity). Comparisons were made regarding their sexual orientation and gender identity, as well as differences based on their diagnosis that may not have been related to their developmental disability. One case study was presented to aid in better understanding of a transgendered individual. Research results showed that most subjects perceived themselves as heterosexual (87%), followed by those that saw themselves as bisexual or questioning (9.7%) and lastly those that reported that they were interested in same sex partners (3.2%). No differences were found for diagnostic category. Four subjects scored within the range to indicate that they had gender identity dysphoria (GID). Again, no differences were found for diagnostic category. Interesting findings resulted when comparisons were made to other measures and to other studies. It is proposed that it is good practice for professionals to rule out the possibility of ambivalence about gender and sexual issues caused by social and life experiences, especially regarding abuse and the lack of information/education. However, their identities, gender identity and/or sexual identity, must be honored as we do with the general population.

Psychosexual Development in Children with Disorder of Sex Development (DSD) – Results from the German Clinical Evaluation Study

Psychosexual development is influenced by biological and psychosocial factors. Human beings show a great variability in psychosexual development both between and within gender-groups. However, there are relatively stable gender-related behaviors and self-perceptions, in which males and females differ distinctly. There is strong evidence that high concentrations of androgens lead to more male-typical behavior and that this also influences gender identity. Disorders of sex development (DSD) provide the opportunity to analyze the role of different factors on psychosexual development. We examined 166 children age 4 to 12 with DSD using instruments concerning gender role behavior, gender identity, and friendship. Results underline the hypothesis, that androgens play a decisive role in the masculinization of gender role behavior in children. There are also some relations between the experience of gender change and psychosexual outcomes which have to be discussed. Nevertheless, results indicated a high congruence between the children's gender identity and gender of rearing.

Multidimensional Gender Identity and Psychological Adjustment in Middle Childhood: A Study in China

This study examined the multiple components of gender identity (Egan and Perry 2001) and their relationships with psychological adjustment among 201 boys and 160 girls (aged 9 to 12 years) in Mainland China. Boys were found to be more content about their gender but feel more pressure to conform to gender stereotypes than girls. No gender or age differences were found in children’s intergroup bias. Higher gender typicality was related to greater global self-worth, greater social competence, and lower sense of loneliness. However, neither felt pressure nor gender contentment significantly predicted psychological adjustment. These results were compared with findings of previous United States-based studies to highlight the impacts of cultural contexts on gender identity and their effects on adjustment.

Children's Gender Identity in Lesbian and Heterosexual Two-Parent Families.

This study compared gender identity, anticipated future heterosexual romantic involvement, and psychosocial adjustment of children in lesbian and heterosexual families; it was furthermore assessed whether associations between these aspects differed between family types. Data were obtained in the Netherlands from children in 63 lesbian families and 68 heterosexual families. All children were between 8 and 12 years old. Children in lesbian families felt less parental pressure to conform to gender stereotypes, were less likely to experience their own gender as superior and were more likely to be uncertain about future heterosexual romantic involvement. No differences were found on psychosocial adjustment. Gender typicality, gender contentedness and anticipated future heterosexual romantic involvement were significant predictors of psychosocial adjustment in both family types.

Toward an LGBT-informed paradigm for children who break gender norms: Comment on Drummond et al. (2008) and Rieger et al. (2008).

In this commentary, the author reviews methodological and conceptual shortcomings of recent articles by K. D. Drummond, S. J. Bradley, M. Peterson-Badali, and K. J. Zucker (see record 2007-19851-005) as well as G. Rieger, J. A. W. Linsenmeier, L. Gygax, and J. M. Bailey (see record 2007-19851-006), which sought to predict adult sexual identity from childhood gender identity. The author argues that such research needs to incorporate a greater awareness of how stigmatization affects identity processes. Multidimensional models of gender identity that describe variation in children's responses to pressure to conform to gender norms are particularly useful in this regard (S. K. Egan & D. G. Perry, 2001). Experiments on the interpretation of developmental data are reviewed to evidence how cultural assumptions about sexuality can impact theories of sexual identity development in unintended ways. The author concludes that understanding the development of children presumed most likely to grow up with sexual minority identities requires a consideration of the cultural contexts in which identities develop and in which psychologists theorize.

Comorbid childhood gender identity disorder in a boy with Asperger syndrome

IN AUTISTIC PSYCHOPATHY, Hans Asperger described that ‘the autistic personality is an extreme variant of male intelligence’.1 Consistent with this notion, Baron-Cohen proposed the ‘extreme male brain theory of autism’.2 By quoting this theory, gender dysphoria in female subjects with Asperger syndrome (AS) could be explained logically. But a literature search yielded no boys with AS and gender identity disorder (GID). Hereby we present such a case. Informed written consent was obtained from the patient's parents. A 5-year-old boy was referred to Child Psychiatry, Sapporo Ayuminosono because of his poor social skills. He had no peri-/neonatal complications. In his infancy he passed early motor and language landmarks without significant delay. Single words were developed at the age of 1 year and communicative phrases were observed at 2.2 years of age. Preoccupations with specific colors and figures were observed. He had limited interaction with others, difficulty in developing peer relationships and was underresponsive in social situations. He liked making his own rules and frequently lost his temper when these were broken. On the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III he had a full-scale IQ of 92 (verbal IQ 90, performance IQ 96) at the age of 7.6 years. Although his appearance was obviously that of a boy, he spoke in a girlish manner and covered his mouth with a hand when he laughed, as female individuals commonly do. He had very limited interaction with boys and his preferred playmates were girls. He was not interested in stereotypical boy's toys and had a marked preoccupation with feminine activities. He liked cute characters in TV animations and always painted cute girls surrounded with many lovely hearts and flowers. At home he tended to dress in girlish clothes and wear a ribbon in his hair. He regretted being a boy and often showed his desire to be a girl and asserted that he would grow up into a woman. These symptoms have been observed throughout the follow-up period of more than 2 years. Based on these symptoms, we diagnosed him as having AS and GID in accordance with the ICD-10 criteria. Most of the gender-related symptoms in autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) could be related to behavioral and psychological characteristics of autism. For example, a boy with ASD might have a sense of belonging to the female sex after being bullied by male peers. Transvestism in ASD may arise from a preoccupation with specific clothes such as a flared skirt which satisfies their tactile sensation. In their youth, ASD subjects can sometimes develop a unique confusion of identity that occasionally expands to gender-related problems. But these views do not explain the present case. For the diagnosis of GID in ASD, sufficient language abilities and sufficient follow-up time are essential. The present case fulfills these requirements. If the present patient continues to have gender-related symptoms into adulthood, we would need to treat him following an international standard.

The Centrality of Gender and Ethnic Identities across Individuals and Contexts

AbstractThis study examined (1) whether 5‐ to 12‐year‐old children consider gender and ethnicity to be central and important components of their identity, (2) whether the relative centrality of these identity components differs across children, and (3) how the centrality of children's gender and ethnic identities is affected by a dynamic situational context of inclusion and exclusion. Results indicate that although gender and ethnicity are not the most important aspects of elementary schoolchildren's self‐concepts, both gender and ethnic identities differ among European‐American and ethnic minority group children, and those differences are greater in older children. In addition, children's gender identity is context‐dependent, but the exact nature of this flexibility is contingent on the existing centrality of their identity.

Gender identity and recalled gender related childhood play-behaviour in adult individuals with different forms of intersexuality

The concept of intersexuality subsumes a wide variety of phenomena with very specific underlying causes. In all these cases, an untypical development takes place during the prenatal sex differentiation process becoming clinically manifest, either at, or soon after birth or at the time of puberty. It subsumes conditions in which biological sexual characteristics (e.g. chromosomal sex, gonadal sex, hormonal sex, morphological sex) differ from each other and one person cannot easily be assigned to one sex. One of the main goals of medical treatment of persons with intersex-syndroms is the development of a stable gender identity. Over the last few years, sex (and gender) assignment of persons with different forms of intersexuality has become a much discussed topic. An interesting--and very obviously observable--variable that was brought in connection with sex assignment is gender related childhood play behaviour. The purpose of the presented study is to examine 37 persons with different forms of intersexuality (disturbances of androgen biosynthesis, partial and complete androgen insensitivity, gonadal dysgenesis with 46,XY and congenital adrenal hyperplasia with 46,XX) with regard to gender identity and gender role behaviour in childhood. Not all subjects in the study group had developed a clear female or male gender identity. In contrast to previous studies, some persons with CAIS did not recall distinguished female childhood play behaviour and these persons did not show a clear female gender identity. In contrast to results from other studies, the CAH-affected girls in this study did not seem to recall masculinized behaviour. Further research is needed to guarantee better psychosexual development with good quality of life in individuals with intersexuality.

Gender Role/Identity and Sibling Sex Ratio in Homosexual Men

Previous research has suggested that homosexual men's sibling sex ratio—the ratio of brothers to sisters collectively reported by a group of individuals—is elevated but only in samples of extremely feminine (e.g., transsexual) homosexual men. I conducted an additional test of a sibling sex ratio effect in a general sample of homosexual men (N = 237), and examined the correlation between sibling sex ratio and childhood gender identity. I found no significant effects. My discussion focuses on why little evidence of a relationship between sibling sex ratio and cross-gender behavior in childhood occurs within this general sample of homosexual men when samples selected for very feminine homosexual men have detected an elevated sibling sex ratio.

The Hidden Discourse of Masculinity in Gender Discrimination Law

Previous articleNext article No AccessThe Hidden Discourse of Masculinity in Gender Discrimination LawTyson Smith, and Michael KimmelTyson SmithDepartment of SociologySUNY at Stony Brook Search for more articles by this author , and Michael KimmelDepartment of SociologySUNY at Stony Brook Search for more articles by this author Department of SociologySUNY at Stony BrookPDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Signs Volume 30, Number 3Spring 2005 Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/427524 Views: 465Total views on this site Citations: 24Citations are reported from Crossref © 2005 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Erin Hatton Legal “Locker Room Talk”: Essentialist Discourses of Masculinity in Law*, Men and Masculinities 25, no.33 (Jan 2021): 419–437.https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X20985583Adrienne Mannov “Nowhere near Somalia, Mom”, Focaal 2021, no.8989 (Mar 2021): 40–51.https://doi.org/10.3167/fcl.2021.890104Marissa Stanziani, Andrea K. Newman, Jennifer Cox, C. Adam Coffey Role call: sex, gender roles, and intimate partner violence, Psychology, Crime & Law 26, no.33 (Sep 2019): 208–225.https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2019.1652746Leoandra Onnie Rogers “I'm Kind of a Feminist”: Using Master Narratives to Analyze Gender Identity in Middle Childhood, Child Development 91, no.11 (Sep 2018): 179–196.https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13142Dave Smallen Mindful Masculinity: Positive Psychology, McMindfulness and Gender, Feminist Review 122, no.11 (Sep 2019): 134–150.https://doi.org/10.1177/0141778919849638Emma Blakey Women’s participation in sport: how is it regulated in international human rights law, and is Australia meeting its international obligations?, Australian Journal of Human Rights 24, no.33 (Oct 2018): 292–306.https://doi.org/10.1080/1323238X.2018.1524258Leslie Salzinger Re-Marking Men: Masculinity as a Terrain of the Neoliberal Economy, Critical Historical Studies 3, no.11 (Jun 2016): 1–25.https://doi.org/10.1086/685553 Introduction, (Jan 2014): 1–8.https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376408-001 The Indies, (Jan 2014): 9–36.https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376408-002 Fighting for a Pop: Wrestler Recognition, (Jan 2014): 37–61.https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376408-003 Passion Work: The Coordinated Production of Emotional Labor, (Jan 2014): 62–88.https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376408-004 “In Real Life I’m a Total Homophobe”: Wrestlers Managing the Male Gaze, (Jan 2014): 89–114.https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376408-005 Pain in the Act, (Jan 2014): 115–145.https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376408-006 Conclusion, (Jan 2014): 147–153.https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376408-007 Notes, (Jan 2014): 171–195.https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376408-008 References, (Jan 2014): 197–211.https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376408-009Tânia Machado, Ana Brandão Regulating Lesbian Motherhood: Gender, Sexuality and Medically Assisted Reproduction in Portugal, Laws 2, no.44 (Nov 2013): 469–482.https://doi.org/10.3390/laws2040469Monika Edgren About Home and Giving Voice to Experiences of Marginalization: a feminist reading of the 1970s social report-books about migration policy in Sweden, Scandinavian Journal of History 36, no.44 (Sep 2011): 500–516.https://doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2011.599514Kathryn E. Gallagher, Dominic J. Parrott What Accounts for Men’s Hostile Attitudes Toward Women? The Influence of Hegemonic Male Role Norms and Masculine Gender Role Stress, Violence Against Women 17, no.55 (Apr 2011): 568–583.https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211407296M. Mohamad Malaysian Sharia Reforms in Flux: The Changeable National Character of Islamic Marriage, International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family 25, no.11 (Jan 2011): 46–70.https://doi.org/10.1093/lawfam/ebq016Michael Burke A Feminist Reconstruction of Liberal Rights and Sport, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 37, no.11 (May 2010): 11–28.https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2010.9714763Tanachart Raoprasert, Sardar M. N. Islam Literature Review, (Oct 2009): 9–49.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7908-2372-1_2Jamie L. Callahan Manifestations of Power and Control: Training as the Catalyst for Scandal at the United States Air Force Academy, Violence Against Women 15, no.1010 (Aug 2009): 1149–1168.https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801209344341Gloria González-López Heterosexual fronteras: Immigrant mexicanos, sexual vulnerabilities, and survival, Sexuality Research and Social Policy 3, no.33 (Sep 2006): 67–81.https://doi.org/10.1525/srsp.2006.3.3.67

'One Was a Woman, the Other a Man'

This paper explores the links between sexuality and subjectivity in Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye, Sula, Song of Solomon, and Paradise. The theories of Jacques Lacan and Nancy Chodorow are employed to examine the anatomical and social / symbolic factors that lead Morrison's subjects to adopt a gendered self. Chodorow's argument that the mother's gender and preoedipal relationship with her child have a profound bearing on the child's gender identity and subsequent sense of self is cited in addressing gender formation and male-female relationships in Morrison's novels. Lacan's view of gender formation as positioning the gendered subject in a particular position in relation to language / the Symbolic system is also considered. Lacan's and Chodorow's concepts are applied in a study of a number of issues pertaining to sexuality and identity, including: homosexuality and 'deviant' sexuality as perceived threats to normative patriarchal gender systems in The Bluest Eye and Paradise; the discord apparent in male-female relationships in Morrison's novels; and the marginalisation of mothers and women as 'other.'

Gender identity and adjustment in middle childhood.

This article has two purposes. The first is to present a brief (and speculative) account of the developmental origins of the several components of gender identity featured in the multidimensional model of gender identity proposed by Egan and Perry (2001). The second is to offer additional empirical support for the construct and discriminant validity of the various gender identity dimensions. Children (M age = 11.5 years) were assessed for 4 components of gender identity: (a) felt gender typicality, (b) contentment with gender assignment, (c) felt pressure for gender conformity, and (d) intergroup bias (the sentiment that one's own sex is superior). Gender typicality, gender contentedness, and felt pressure (but not intergroup bias) related to indexes of psychosocial adjustment in specific and theoretically meaningful ways. The case for a multidimensional approach to gender identity is strengthened.

Psychological outcomes and gender-related development in complete androgen insensitivity syndrome.

We evaluated psychological outcomes and gender development in 22 women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS). Participants were recruited through a medical database (n = 10) or through a patient support group (n = 12). Controls included 14 males and 33 females, of whom 22 were matched to women with CAIS for age, race, and sex-of-rearing. Outcome measures included quality of life (self-esteem and psychological general well-being), gender-related psychological characteristics (gender identity, sexual orientation, and gender role behavior in childhood and adulthood), marital status, personality traits that show sex differences, and hand preferences. Women recruited through the database versus the support group did not differ systematically, and there were no statistically significant differences between the 22 women with CAIS and the matched controls for any psychological outcome. These findings argue against the need for two X chromosomes or ovaries to determine feminine-typical psychological development in humans and reinforce the important role of the androgen receptor in influencing masculine-typical psychological development. They also suggest that psychological outcomes in women with CAIS are similar to those in other women. However, additional attention to more detailed aspects of psychological well-being in CAIS is needed.

Presumed Innocence

When sexual harassment and schooling have been the focus of research, the site of investigation has been the secondary school and subsequently the experiences of adolescents. Locating the primary school as a key arena for the production and regulation of sexual discourses, practices and identities, this article examines the neglected area of preadolescents' experiences of different forms of sexual harassment. Drawing on data from an ethnographic study of children's gender and sexual identities during their final year of primary school, the author reports on the physical and verbal forms of heterosexual, homophobic and heterosexist harassment of both girls and boys and suggests that such practices are the means by which many children define, create and consolidate hegemonic masculinities and femininities, heterosexual identities and heterosexual hierarchies. The implications regarding the more damaging practices of children's sexual cultures and relationships for policy and practice are discussed briefly in the concluding section.