Children's Strategy Use Research Articles

Verbal strategies and nonverbal cues in school-age children with and without specific language impairment (SLI).

Considerable evidence suggests that performance across a variety of cognitive tasks is effectively supported by the use of verbal and nonverbal strategies. Studies exploring the usefulness of such strategies in children with specific language impairment (SLI) are scarce and report inconsistent findings. To examine the effects of induced labelling and auditory cues on the performance of children with and without SLI during a categorization task. Sixty-six school-age children (22 with SLI, 22 age-matched controls, 22 language-matched controls) completed three versions of a computer-based categorization task: one baseline, one requiring overt labelling and one with auditory cues (tones) on randomized trial blocks. Labelling had no effect on performance for typically developing children but resulted in lower accuracy and longer reaction time in children with SLI. The presence of tones had no effect on accuracy but resulted in faster reaction time and post-error slowing across groups. Verbal strategy use was ineffective for typically developing children and negatively affected children with SLI. All children showed faster performance and increased performance monitoring as a result of tones. Overall, effects of strategy use in children appear to vary based on task demands, strategy domain, age and language ability. Results suggest that children with SLI may benefit from auditory cues in their clinical intervention but that further research is needed to determine when and how verbal strategies might similarly support performance in this population.

Go Figure: Individuation vs. Configuration in Processing Spatial Arrays

Previous studies have suggested that the strategies one employs when organizing visual-spatial information may shift during development. Specifically, prior studies indicate that adults more accurately reproduced visual-spatial arrays that promoted configural processing compared to displays that promoted individuation of elements, whereas children showed the reverse pattern. However, in hidden search tasks, when children were provided with a meaningful shape, they searched more efficiently than with random shapes, suggesting that children may prefer a configural strategy but require meaningful shape to utilize configuration (Uttal et al., 2001). The present study tested whether meaningful shape can facilitate layout reproduction of small-scale visual-spatial configurations via manipulating both the global shape (meaningful vs. random) and color (monochromatic vs. multicolored) of displays. Children 6-12 years of age and adults reproduced four different displays and we measured the degree of distortion in each reproduction. Adults showed a main effect for color (monochrome better than multicolored) and a trend for display type (meaningful better than random), indicative of a configural approach. By contrast, results for the children revealed an effect of display type (meaningful configurations less distorted than random arrays) and an interaction between display type and color. An interrogation of the interaction revealed that adding meaningful shape enhanced performance on the monochromatic condition but had no effect on the multicolored condition. Together, this finding suggests that (1) children may more naturally utilize information that promotes individuation of array elements; however, (2) meaningful shapes can confer an advantage as represented by an attenuation of the difference between monochromatic and multicolored displays for the meaningful shape condition. Overall, these results may reflect a tension between strategy use in children and that although they may not spontaneously adopt a configural strategy, when configural information is the only information conveyed it can be used to more efficiently represent visual-spatial arrays. Meeting abstract presented at VSS 2013

The Effect of Teachers' Memory‐Relevant Language on Children's Strategy Use and Knowledge

Building on longitudinal findings of linkages between aspects of teachers' language during instruction and children's use of mnemonic strategies, this investigation was designed to examine experimentally the impact of instruction on memory development. First and second graders (N = 54, M(age) = 7 years) were randomly assigned to a science unit that varied only in teachers' use of memory-relevant language. Pretest, posttest, and 1-month follow-up assessments revealed that although all participating children learned new information as a result of instruction, those exposed to memory rich teaching exhibited greater levels of strategic knowledge and engaged in more sophisticated strategy use in a memory task involving instructional content than did students exposed to low memory instruction. The findings provide support for a causal linkage between teachers' language and children's strategic efforts.

Numerical Magnitude Representations and Individual Differences in Children's Arithmetic Strategy Use

Against the background of neuroimaging studies on how the brain processes numbers, there is now converging evidence that numerical magnitude representations are crucial for successful mathematics achievement. One major drawback of this research is that it mainly investigated mathematics performance as measured through general standardized achievement tests. We extended this research by investigating the association between numerical magnitude representations and children's strategy use during single‐digit arithmetic. Our findings reveal that children's symbolic but not nonsymbolic numerical magnitude processing skills are associated with individual differences in arithmetic. Children with better access to magnitude representations from symbolic digits retrieve more facts from their memory and are faster in executing fact retrieval as well as procedural strategies. These associations remain even when intellectual ability, digit naming, and general mathematics achievement are additionally controlled for. All this indicates that particularly the access to numerical meaning from Arabic symbols is key for children's arithmetic strategy development, which suggests that educators and remedial teachers should focus on connecting Arabic symbols to the quantities they represent.

Differential expression of social dominance as a function of age and maltreatment experience.

Recent perspectives on social dominance in normative populations have suggested a developmental progression from using primarily coercive strategies to incorporation of more socially competent strategies to attain material and social resources. Parental influences on the resource control strategies children use have been proposed but not investigated empirically. The present study examined age- and gender-related differences in dominance strategies in 470 children from high-risk neighborhoods who were between 6 and 13 years of age, approximately half of whom had experienced maltreatment. A Q-sort measure of social dominance was developed and received preliminary support. Consistent with predictions from resource control theory, age-related differences in dominance-related behavior were demonstrated in both nonmaltreated and maltreated children. Maltreated children were more likely than nonmaltreated children to be identified as dominant bullies at any age. Dominance and bullying were not more likely to be associated for children who had experienced physical and sexual abuse relative to those who were neglected or emotionally maltreated. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of maltreatment on the social development of children, and intervention approaches for limiting these deleterious effects are recommended.

Emotion regulation strategy use in children and adolescents: The explanatory roles of personality and attachment

Emotion Regulation (ER) is a fundamental aspect of healthy psychological functioning. A sample of 682 children and adolescents aged between 10 and 18years, participated in this study, which examined the roles of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality and parental attachment in the use of the ER strategies of Reappraisal and Suppression. Higher scores on Extraversion and Openness predicted more Reappraisal use, while higher scores on all FFM variables predicted less Suppression use, with the exception of Neuroticism which was positively related to Suppression use. Regarding attachment, higher Communication predicted more Reappraisal and less Suppression use while higher Alienation predicted less Reappraisal and more Suppression use. The current findings contribute to our understanding of factors underlying the use of specific ER strategies.

Representational change and strategy use in children's number line estimation during the first years of primary school

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to scrutinize number line estimation behaviors displayed by children in mathematics classrooms during the first three years of schooling. We extend existing research by not only mapping potential logarithmic-linear shifts but also provide a new perspective by studying in detail the estimation strategies of individual target digits within a number range familiar to children.MethodsTypically developing children (n = 67) from Years 1-3 completed a number-to-position numerical estimation task (0-20 number line). Estimation behaviors were first analyzed via logarithmic and linear regression modeling. Subsequently, using an analysis of variance we compared the estimation accuracy of each digit, thus identifying target digits that were estimated with the assistance of arithmetic strategy.ResultsOur results further confirm a developmental logarithmic-linear shift when utilizing regression modeling; however, uniquely we have identified that children employ variable strategies when completing numerical estimation, with levels of strategy advancing with development.ConclusionIn terms of the existing cognitive research, this strategy factor highlights the limitations of any regression modeling approach, or alternatively, it could underpin the developmental time course of the logarithmic-linear shift. Future studies need to systematically investigate this relationship and also consider the implications for educational practice.

Preschool Boys’ Development of Emotional Self-Regulation Strategies in a Sample At Risk for Behavior Problems

ABSTRACT Little longitudinal research has been conducted on changes in children's emotional self-regulation strategy (SRS) use after infancy, particularly for children at risk. In this study, the authors examined changes in boys’ emotional SRS from toddlerhood through preschool. Repeated observational assessments using delay of gratification tasks at ages 2, 3, and 4 years were examined with both variable- and person-oriented analyses in a low-income sample of boys (N = 117) at risk for early problem behavior. Results were consistent with theory on emotional SRS development in young children. Children initially used more emotion-focused SRS (e.g., comfort seeking) and transitioned to greater use of planful SRS (e.g., distraction) by 4 years of age. Person-oriented analysis using trajectory analysis found similar patterns from 2 to 4 years, with small groups of boys showing delayed movement away from emotion-focused strategies or delay in the onset of regular use of distraction. The results provide a foundation for future researchers to examine the development of SRS in low-income young children.

The use of different spelling strategies among EFL young learners

The present study aimed to investigate the frequency of children's spelling strategy use in the primary levels of learning English. It also compared the use of these strategies in good and average spellers with those of poor spellers. The participants of this study were 32 Iranian children at the first stages of learning to spell rated as being either low, average, or above average spellers. The children were asked to spell 20 words in a dictation. They were observed while spelling and were asked about the strategy they used to spell each word immediately after spelling. The results showed that retrieval was the most frequently used strategy by the participants most frequently used by the participants followed by sounding out and analogy. Considering the use of strategies in good, average, and poor spellers, it was concluded that the most common strategies for spelling were used more often by good and average spellers and less often by poor spellers.

The normative development of emotion regulation strategy use in children and adolescents: a 2‐year follow‐up study

Emotion regulation involves intrinsic and extrinsic processes responsible for managing one's emotions toward goal accomplishment. Research on emotion regulation has predominantly focused on early developmental periods and the majority of emotion regulation research examining the pre-adult years has lacked a comprehensive theoretical framework. The current study examined the use of two strategies of emotion regulation during childhood and adolescents, as conceptualised within Gross's (1998) process-oriented model. To determine the use, norms and development of the Expressive Suppression and Cognitive Reappraisal strategies, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA) was administered to 1,128 participants aged between 9 and 15 years. Three data collection phases, each one year apart, enabled investigation of developmental patterns in the use of the two strategies. As predicted, Suppression use was found to be lower for older participants compared to their younger peers, and over time participants reported less use of this strategy. Older participants also scored lower on Reappraisal but stability over time was found. Also as expected, males reported more Suppression use compared to females. By documenting the development and norms for Cognitive Reappraisal and Expressive Suppression in a community sample of children and adolescents, the current study makes a significant contribution to our understanding of these two ER strategies during these developmental periods.

Neural Correlates of Individual Differences in Children's Strategy Use During Early Mental Arithmetic Learning

Neural Correlates of Individual Differences in Children's Strategy Use During Early Mental Arithmetic Learning

Interrelations of Speech Perception and Speech Comprehension in Young Children

Interrelations of Speech Perception and Speech Comprehension in Young Children Children's first-language perception base and their operative strategies of perceptual processes take shape gradually from age one onwards. A large amount of research has been devoted to the analysis of children's speech processing; however, this is the first comprehensive study of the speech perception processes of Hungarian two- and three-year-olds (based on 3360 data of 48 children, using 7 subtests of the GMP diagnostic procedure). The aim of the present research was to characterize the organization of speech decoding processes, the interrelations of speech perception and comprehension as well as the strategies children use. The analysis proved the existence of a strong top-down decoding process which is entirely different from the organization of adults' processes. There was no significant variation across age groups but significant differences have been found depending on the decoding processes themselves. In addition, children's speech perception showed enormous individual differences. The results have important consequences for the practice of speech therapy.

Variable Memory Strategy Use in Children’s Adaptive Intratask Learning Behavior: Developmental Changes and Working Memory Influences in Free Recall

Variability in strategy use within single trials in free recall was analyzed longitudinally from second to fourth grades (ages 8-10 years). To control for practice effects another sample of fourth graders was included (age 10 years). Video analyses revealed that children employed different strategies when preparing for free recall. A gradual shift from labeling to cumulative rehearsal was present both with increasing age and across different list positions. Whereas cumulative rehearsal was frequent at early list positions, labeling was dominant at later list portions. Working memory capacity predicted the extent of cumulative rehearsal usage, which became more efficient with increasing age. Results are discussed in the context of the adaptive strategy choice model.

Effects of problem size, operation, and working-memory span on simple-arithmetic strategies: differences between children and adults?

Adult's simple-arithmetic strategy use depends on problem-related characteristics, such as problem size and operation, and on individual-difference variables, such as working-memory span. The current study investigates (a) whether the effects of problem size, operation, and working-memory span on children's simple-arithmetic strategy use are equal to those observed in adults, and (b) how these effects emerge and change across age. To this end, simple-arithmetic performance measures and a working-memory span measure were obtained from 8-year-old, 10-year-old, and 12-year-old children. Results showed that the problem-size effect in children results from the same strategic performance differences as in adults (i.e., size-related differences in strategy selection, retrieval efficiency, and procedural efficiency). Operation-related effects in children were equal to those observed in adults as well, with more frequent retrieval use on multiplication, more efficient strategy execution in addition, and more pronounced changes in multiplication. Finally, the advantage of having a large working-memory span was also present in children. The differences and similarities across children's and adult's strategic performance and the relevance of arithmetic models are discussed.

An Inquiry into Children's Reading in One Urban School using SRA Reading Mastery (Direct Instruction)

This study focused on 27 second graders in one urban school that used SRA Reading Mastery. Children's strategy use, comprehension, and perception of the reading process were appraised using samples of oral reading with retellings; classroom observations; interviews with the children, their teachers, and the principal; and a phonics test. Results showed that visual and sound cues were used heavily when reading text, but nearly half of miscues were not meaningful substitutions. Children rarely self-corrected, and their use of nonwords was high. Phonics knowledge when reading pseudowords was in the average range. Most children tackled grade-level or above grade-level authored trade books, but their retellings, corroborated by our classroom observations, indicated that talk about stories without explicit guidance from teachers was uncommon. Retellings frequently lacked coherence, elaboration, or inferences. Results from interviews with school personnel revealed that the program was strong in teaching skills, but weak in developing reading comprehension and writing.

Strategy Development in Childrenwith Mathematical Disabilities

This study investigated the strategy characteristics and development of children with mathematical disabilities (MD) in the domain of simple addition and subtraction, in terms of Lemaire and Siegler's model of strategic change, using the choice/no-choice method and the combined chronological-age (CA)/ability-level (AL)-match design. Four groups of children, matched on either CA or mathematical AL, solved a series of 36 problems with the bridge over 10 in four conditions. In the choice condition, children could choose between retrieval, decomposition to 10, and counting on to solve each problem. In the retrieval, decomposition, and counting conditions, they had to answer the same 36 problems using retrieval, decomposition to 10, and counting on, respectively. The results revealed clear differences in the frequency, efficiency, and adaptiveness with which the CA-matched children applied the available strategies. In contrast, we observed no differences in strategy frequency, efficiency, and adaptiveness between the AL-matched children. These results support the hypothesis that the strategy development of children with MD is marked by a delay rather than a specific deficit. Moreover, this study further documents the value of the methodology used to study children's strategy use and development in the domain of simple arithmetic.

Overt and covert verbal problem-solving strategies: developmental trends in use, awareness, and relations with task performance in children aged 5 to 17.

Age-related changes in children's use, self report, and awareness of verbal problem-solving strategies (private speech) and strategy effectiveness were explored with a large (N = 2,156) cross-sectional sample of children aged 5 to 17. Children's verbal strategies moved from overt, to partially covert, to fully covert forms with age. Self-reports of verbal strategy use were accurate yet incomplete. Awareness of children's use of verbal strategies was low and increased with age. Although verbal strategies were associated with competence among the youngest children, self-talk was unrelated to task performance for older children, suggesting considerable persistence over time of a relatively ineffective strategy. Awareness was not a prerequisite for children's verbal strategy use but was positively associated with strategy effectiveness among those who talked.

Effects of Verbal and Physical Prompts on External Strategy Use in Children With and Without Mild Mental Retardation

Effects of type of prompt on the use of external strategies were examined. Participants were 7-, 9-, 11-, and 17-year-old children without mental retardation and 11- and 17-year-old children with mental retardation (N = 272). They were given a task requiring memory for object placement and assigned to one of four conditions: no prompt, verbal prompt, physical prompt, verbal and physical prompt. In the physical and verbal prompt condition, 17-year-old children with mental retardation used strategies at the same rate as 17-year-old children without mental retardation. Eleven-year-old children with mental retardation used similar types of strategies as the 7-year-old children without mental retardation. Thus, strategy use of older children with mental retardation may be activated to the same level of children without mental retardation with prompts.

Context Effects in Children's Selection and Use of Simple Arithmetic Strategies

Six- and 7-year-old children computed moves on a board game from dice over 3 sessions (game context) and also solved simple, aurally presented addition problems (academic context), corresponding to the dice rolls made in the game. Children displayed multiple and variable use of addition strategies in both the game and academic contexts, although there were significant differences in the strategies used and patterns of performance between the 2 contexts. Children used more sophisticated strategies and made more errors during the academic than the game context. The relation between strategy use, variability, and errors also varied between the 2 conditions, as did the selection of strategies children used for solving identical addition problems. These findings support selectionist models of cognitive development and illustrate the potent role of context in young children's strategy use.

Variability in comprehension strategy use in children with SLI: a dynamical systems account.

The aim was to investigate the stability of comprehension strategy use in children with specific language impairment (SLI). According to principles of Dynamic Systems Theory, behaviour is both unstable and more easily affected by changes in external variables during developmental transitions. The study examined this prediction directly by comparing the comprehension strategy use of children with SLI in two different conditions. The subjects included 16 school-aged children with SLI (ages 6;8-8;5), and eight chronologically age-matched (CA) controls. One group of children with SLI (n = 8) was in a development transition between animacy and word-order comprehension strategy use, demonstrating the emerging use of word-order sentence comprehension strategies (SLI-T). The second group of children with SLI (n = 8) was not in a developmental transition (SLI-N), demonstrating the use of only animacy comprehension strategies characteristic of younger typically developing children. Children were asked to determine the agent in 54 sentences of the forms (NVN, NNV, VNN) with animacy of the noun as a second factor in each of two different conditions designed to vary external processing demands. Analysis of variance and maximum likelihood estimate analysis revealed that comprehension strategies for both groups of children with SLI differed qualitatively from CA controls. In particular, the findings revealed that comprehension strategy use in children with SLI was highly vulnerable to increases in external processing demands as compared with CA controls, suggesting that comprehension strategies in children with SLI are weakly represented regardless of the strategy they use. Findings from the study also illustrate the impact of intrinsic as well as extrinsic contextual factors on the stability and instability of language processing performance in children with SLI.