Children's Self-regulation Research Articles

친사회적 그림책 내용 기반 종이접기놀이가 유아의 자기조절능력과 친사회적 행동에 미치는 영향

Objectives The purpose of this study is to develop origami play based on prosocial picture books to develop children's self-regulations and pro-social behavior and to analyze its effects.
 Methods For this purpose, we applied origami play based on the contents of prosocial picture books to 40 4-year-old children (20 experimental group, 20 comparison group) attending kindergarten B in W city, K province, and conducted an experiment to verify its effectiveness. Pre- and post-tests were conducted on the group and comparison group. Data analysis was performed using a t-test using the SPSS 22.0 statistical program.
 Results There were significant differences in self-regulation and its sub-factors, and pro-social behavior and sub-factors between the experimental group that applied origami play based on the content of pro-social picture books and the comparison group that performed origami play based on picture book content related to daily life topics.
 Conclusions Origami play based on prosocial picture book content had a positive effect on the development of children's self-regulation and prosocial behavior. It was confirmed that reading picture books with prosocial content and origami are friendly and accessible educational activities that help young children learn self-regulation and develop pro-social behavior to form harmonious social relationships at home or in educational institutions.

Prospective associations between early childhood parental feeding practices and eating disorder symptoms and disordered eating behaviors in adolescence.

Nonresponsive parental feeding practices are associated with poorer appetite self-regulation in children. It is unknown whether this relationship extends beyond childhood to be prospectively associated with the onset of eating disorder (ED) symptoms in adolescence. This exploratory study therefore investigated prospective associations between early childhood parental feeding practices and adolescent ED symptoms and disordered eating behaviors. Data were from two population-based cohorts with harmonized measures: Generation R (Netherlands; n = 4900) and Gemini (UK; n = 2094). Parents self-reported their pressure to eat, restriction and instrumental feeding (i.e., using food as a reward) at child age 4-5 years. Adolescents self-reported their compensatory behaviors (e.g., fasting, purging), binge-eating symptoms, restrained eating, uncontrolled eating, and emotional eating at 12-14 years. Associations between feeding practices and ED symptoms were examined separately in each cohort using generalized linear models. In Gemini, pressure to eat in early childhood was associated with adolescents engaging in compensatory behaviors. In Generation R, parental restriction was associated with adolescents engaging in compensatory behaviors, restrained eating, uncontrolled eating, and emotional eating. Instrumental feeding was associated with uncontrolled eating and emotional eating in Generation R. Nonresponsive parental feeding practices were associated with a greater frequency of specific ED symptoms and disordered eating in adolescence, although effect sizes were small and findings were inconsistent between cohorts. Potentially, the cultural and developmental context in which child-parent feeding interactions occur is important for ED symptoms. Further replication studies are required to better understand parents' role in the development and maintenance of ED-related symptoms. Prospective research examining how early childhood parental feeding practices might contribute to adolescent ED symptoms is limited. In two population-based cohorts, nonresponsive feeding practices (restriction, instrumental feeding, pressure to eat) predicted increased frequency of some ED symptoms and disordered eating behaviors in adolescence, although associations were small and further replication is required. Findings support the promotion of responsive feeding practices, which may benefit young children's developing relationship with food.

Preschoolers' Self-Regulation and Behavior Problems in the Midst of Caregiver Depression and Chaos.

Preschoolers' self-regulation is partially developed through home and child care routines. COVID-19-related child care closures increased caregiver depressive symptoms, household chaos, and children's behavior problems. This longitudinal study examined how preschoolers' prepandemic self-regulation was related to behavior problems early in the pandemic, including buffering against the adverse effects of caregiver depressive symptoms and household chaos. A sample of 264 caregivers of preschoolers reported on their children's self-regulation (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version Inhibitory Self Control Index) before the pandemic and caregiver depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiological Studies), household chaos (Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale), and children's behavior problems (Behavior Rating Index for Children) during the pandemic. We used linear mixed models to examine predictors of children's behavior problems, including prepandemic self-regulation, and further examined moderation by pandemic-related caregiver depressive symptoms and household chaos. Children were 64% non-Hispanic White and 24% non-Hispanic Black, with mean pandemic age 5.9 years. Prepandemic self-regulation significantly predicted early pandemic behavior problems (β = -0.38 [95% confidence interval, -0.69 to -0.07]). This association was moderated by pandemic-related caregiver depressive symptoms and household chaos; the protective association was maintained at high levels of caregiver depressive symptoms or household chaos, although the association diminished when these co-occurred. The protective association between prepandemic self-regulation and subsequent behavior problems suggests longitudinal benefits of preschoolers' inhibitory and emotional control. Despite reduced protection associated with co-occurring caregiver and household challenges, self-regulation continued to demonstrate protection against subsequent behavior problems, even in the midst of a pandemic.

The mediating role of child delay of gratification in the link between early and prolonged poverty exposure and adolescent allostatic load

Early and prolonged exposure to poverty disrupts biological processes associated with the body’s stress response system, leading to long-term negative health outcomes, including obesity, autoimmune disorders, and cardiovascular disease. Allostatic load (AL), a composite measure of chronic stress on the body, is a robust predictor of subsequent health outcomes. However, developmental research examining the associations of early poverty exposure with AL in adolescence, as well as the underlying mechanisms of influence is limited. Early poverty exposure also impedes healthy development of child self-regulation, which may increase risk for high AL in adolescence, but this mechanistic pathway has not yet been tested. We used data from the national Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) to examine the longitudinal associations between prolonged poverty exposure in early childhood (0–3 years) and AL in adolescence (age 15). We also tested the mediating role of child delay of gratification, a behavioral measure of self-regulation (at age 54 months), in the potential association between early poverty exposure and adolescent AL. Accounting for model covariates (i.e., child biological sex and race-ethnicity) and individual differences in child delay of gratification, early and prolonged poverty exposure was significantly associated with higher AL at age 15. The indirect effect through child delay of gratification was not significant, but the individual pathways of the indirect effect were significant, and the overall direct association of early poverty exposure with adolescent AL was significant. Our findings show that prolonged exposure to poverty in early childhood (0–3 years) can have significant negative associations with both child delay of gratification (at 54 months) and AL (at age 15). Given that the detrimental impacts of poverty exposure can be detected at an early age, targeted prevention efforts (e.g., anti-poverty programs such as cash assistance programs) may be able to offset some of the risks of early poverty exposure on self-regulation and AL.

Development of self-regulation of bilingual children and the role of teacher-child interactions

ABSTRACT Bilingualism has been systematically associated with better self-regulatory skills (), however, this advantage does not seem to automatically transfer for most dual language learners. This suggests that there are other contextual factors that are necessary to trigger this advantage. This study examines the role of teacher–child interactions in the development of Spanish-speaking bilingual preschoolers’ self-regulation in an English-speaking context, and how this relation differs between bilingual and English-speaking monolingual children. Our study analyzed a sample of 1656 preschoolers in the U. S. and yielded two salient results (1) Bilingual children demonstrated greater gains in self-regulatory skills than their monolingual peers when in classrooms with high-quality teacher–child interactions. (2) Vocabulary in bilingual children moderated the relation between teacher–child interactions and teacher-reported self-regulation for bilingual children, with bilinguals who had greater vocabulary knowledge benefiting more from classroom interactions. These outcomes hold significant implications for policy makers, given the evolving sociodemographic profile of classrooms globally.

Impact Factors for Children's Self-control

This study delves into the vital psychological attribute of self-control and its profound effects on children, focusing on two pivotal determinants: family environment and educational milieu. Self-control, the capacity to independently govern behaviour, emotions, and decision-making toward long-term objectives, is paramount for personal development and triumph. The family environment, encapsulating facets such as family structure and support, is pivotal in shaping a child's self-control. Factors like socioeconomic adversity and parenting styles(PS) are crucial influencers in moulding self-regulation(SR). Simultaneously, the educational setting, categorized into diverse self-managing aspects, exhibits a discernible impact on overall educational quality. Autonomy support(AS) and structured parenting positively affect children's self-regulation and academic achievements. The study underscores the interdependence between family and educational environments, advocating for targeted interventions and innovative strategies to advance children's self-control. It concludes by proposing avenues for future research to refine further interventions and strategies to foster children's self-control.

HTKS-Kids: A tablet-based self-regulation measure to equitably assess young children's school readiness.

Technology advances make it increasingly possible to adapt direct behavioral assessments for classroom use. This study examined children's scores on HTKS-Kids, a new, largely child-led version of the established individual research assessment of self-regulation, Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders-Revised task (HTKS-R). For the HTKS-Kids tablet-based assessment, which was facilitated by children's preschool teachers, we examined (1) preliminary reliability and validity; (2) variation in scores predicted by child age and background characteristics; and (3) indication that HTKS-Kids provides different information from teacher ratings of children. Participants included n = 79 4-year-old children from two urban areas in upstate New York, USA. Average parent education was 12.5 years, ranging 3-20. A researcher administered the HTKS-R to individual children, and teachers (eight white, two Latino) were trained to use the HTKS-Kids tablet-based assessment and asked to play once with each study child. Teachers also rated each child on 10 Child Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS) items about classroom self-regulation. We found evidence that (1) the HTKS-Kids captures variation in children's self-regulation and correlates positively with established measures, (2) parent education was the best predictor of HTKS-Kids scores, and (3) teachers rated Black children significantly worse and white children better on the CBRS, with the magnitude of group differences similar to the contribution of parent education. In contrast, Black and white children showed no score differences on HTKS-Kids. The HTKS-Kids is a promising new tablet-based assessment of self-regulation that could replace or supplement traditional teacher ratings, which are often subject to implicit bias.

Bidirectional Relationship between Positive Parenting Behavior and Children's Self-Regulation: A Three-Wave Longitudinal Study.

In this study, we used a cross-lagged design to explore the relationship between children's self-regulation and positive parenting behaviors. Children aged 3 years (N = 84) were tested individually three times a year for their hot and cool self-regulation, while their parents' positive parenting behaviors (warmth, structure, and autonomy support) were collected through questionnaires. In the structural equation panel model, bidirectional relations between children's inhibitory control and parental positive parenting were found. Children's inhibitory control and positive parenting predicted changes in each other for the first six months. Such a reciprocal relationship also existed between parental autonomy support and children's inhibitory control. There was a cross-lagged effect between parental warmth and children' inhibitory control rather than a simultaneous relation. Children's inhibitory control positively predicted parental structural behaviors rather than vice versa. Children's delayed waiting and positive parenting (autonomy support) were only positively correlated, rather than having a lagging effect. All the relationships faded over time.

아버지의 양육 행동이 유아의 사회적 능력에 미치는 영향 -유아의 자기조절 능력의 매개효과-

The purpose of this study is to explore how fathers' parenting behaviors influence young children's social competence, and to examine the mediating role of young children's self-regulation skills in this relationship. To achieve this, data were collected from 218 young children and 218 fathers at a public kindergarten in Linyi City, Shandong Province, as well as 11 kindergarten teachers. The study employed frequency analysis, descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation analysis, and the three-step approach of Baron & Kenny (1986), with the Sobel test used to verify the mediating effect. The results of the study revealed that, first, there were significant positive correlations between fathers' parenting behaviors, young children's self-regulation skills, and young children's social competence. Second, the mediating role of young children's self-regulation skills in the relationship between fathers' parenting behaviors and young children's social competence was confirmed. These findings have significant implications for real-life scenarios. Parents and educators can understand how fathers' parenting behaviors may influence children's social competence and self-regulation skills, and adjust their parenting methods accordingly. Additionally, this research can emphasize the role of fathers and help to give more consideration to parental roles within the family.

The specifics of the formation of arbitrary self-regulation in preschool children with mental retardation

The article presents a theoretical analysis of the phenomenon of the formation of arbitrary self-regulation in ontogenesis. The difficulties associated with the development of arbitrary self-regulation in preschool children with mental retardation are analyzed. The classification of psychophysiological peculiarities of children with mental retardation in preschool age and their influence on the formation of self-control and readiness for educational activities is given. Based on the study and analysis of sources, the importance of the development of voluntary self-regulation in preschool age in children with mental retardation has been established. The assumptions about the sensitivity of preschool age in the formation of arbitrariness and self-control are substantiated.

Pretend play as the space for development of self-regulation: cultural-historical perspective.

Self-regulated behavior is a prerequisite for learning and success in life. Considerable research confirms that mature forms of play support the development of self-regulation in the early years. This study explores the relationship between (3-6-year-olds) children's pretend play and self-regulation skills. Teachers filled out a child's play and self-regulation checklist evaluating the level of children's play and self-regulation skills. The findings revealed that the levels of children's play and self-regulation skills are statistically significantly linked: the better the child performs an assumed role in play activity, the higher the level of their self-regulation. The results also suggest that a child's playing skills, gender, and age predict children's self-regulation skills manifested in play activity.

Relationship between Socio-Dramatic Play and Self-Regulation Skills in Early Childhood

Purpose: Socio-dramatic play is important for supporting self-regulation skills in early childhood, and the complexity level of socio-dramatic play may increase the need for self-regulation skills. This study examined the relationship between the self-regulation skills of 60- to 86-month-old preschoolers and the complexity of socio-dramatic play better to understand the link between socio-dramatic play and self-regulation skills.
 Methodology: This study was designed as associational research to examine whether self-regulation skills based on teachers' and mothers' views relate to socio-dramatic play's aspects and complexity levels. The participants consisted of 51 preschool children attending two public schools in Turkey. Children's self-regulation skills (attention, working memory, and inhibitory control) were measured using self-regulation scales with teacher and mother forms. The socio-dramatic play was assessed using an observational tool consisting of three aspects (symbolic agent, symbolic substitution, and symbolic complexity). 
 Findings: Findings revealed that self-regulation skills (inhibitory control and attention) showed a statistically significant difference in favor of children who engaged in sociodramatic play with high symbolic complexity. The working memory did not differ significantly regarding symbolic complexity. The teacher and mother reports revealed that self-regulation skills' attention, working memory, and inhibitory control dimensions did not relate to the aspects of symbolic agent and symbolic substitution. 
 Highlights: These findings indicate that only the symbolic complexity aspect of socio-dramatic play is positively associated with preschoolers' self-regulation skills (inhibitory control and attention). Results were discussed concerning the literature on socio-dramatic play and self-regulation.

Impacts of Parenting and Child Self-Regulation on the Problematic Use of Smart Media: A Latent Profile Analysis Approach

Objectives: To investigate latent profiles of maternal parenting behaviors (APQ) and toddlers’ self-regulation (SCRS) that influence problematic smart media use (PSMU). We explored mother-child dyads that may be vulnerable or protective toward smart media use by classifying various latent groups based on child characteristics and parenting environment.Methods: An online survey was completed with 678 mothers of 3-5-year-olds to assess toddlers’ PSMU, SCRS, and APQ. Descriptive statistical analyses were performed with SPSS 25.0 and latent profile analysis was conducted with Mplus 8.0. using the DU3STEP approach.Results: Toddlers' SCRS and APQ were classified into five latent profile groups: average, protective parenting, dual vulnerable, vulnerable parenting and mutual protective. Both the vulnerable parenting and dual vulnerable groups exhibited the highest levels of craving, dependence, and permission regarding PSMU, while the other three groups displayed below-average levels of PSMU. The mutual protective and protective parenting groups were the safest. The largest group was the average group, with about 42 percent of the total, and the smallest was the vulnerable parenting group, with 8.31 percent.Conclusion: A latent profile analysis revealed that APQ served as both risk and protective factors for all aspects of PSMU in toddlers. Child SCRS interacted with and was influenced by maternal influences in all dimensions of craving, dependence, and permission. Examining toddlers' PSMU in light of their interactions with their mothers suggests that not only the child but also the parenting environment should be considered.

The Influences of Parenting Style on Child Self-regulation

Self-regulation ability is important for developing and maintaining organized behavior. These skills participate in several tasks and help an individual to perform better. Parental influence can shape childrens behavior and have further effects on their self-regulation ability. This research focuses on the interaction between parenting style and childrens self-regulation skills in China. All studies were based on scales. Self-regulation Questionnaire and Parenting style scale were used to determine the different factors in this research. In addition, other questions evaluating family status and child academic performance are added. 146 effective responses were received. Children with authoritative parents show a higher self-regulation ability. While authoritarian and neglect parents may contribute to the low self-regulation ability of the child. Whereas, Gender shows no significant difference in these skills. And mother shows a greater influence on the child than the father. Further research is needed to study self-regulation and child development deeply.

What works for whom? Moderators in parental reflective functioning intervention

ABSTRACT The DUET program (a group intervention) aims to enhance parental reflective functioning (PRF). We examined whether pretreatment levels of key outcomes as well as individual parental and family-environment characteristics predicted improvement after intervention with the DUET program. One hundred forty-two parents (native Israelis; mean age = 34.84 years) of preschool children (n = 107; mean child age = 4.3 years; 53% female) were assessed before, after, and 6 months following the intervention. Results indicated significant associations between lower levels of key outcomes at the pretreatment assessment and greater improvement after treatment in PRF, child self-regulation, and child self-distraction strategies. Furthermore, two subgroups of families were uncovered based on individual parental and family-environment characteristics: low-distress and high-distress parents. Following intervention, the high-distress group showed greater improvement in parental sensitivity and child problem behavior, whereas the low-distress group reported greater improvement in locus of control. Clinical and future directions are discussed.

Investigation of the relationship between screen usage habits, behavioral problems and self-regulation skills of children aged 4–6

PurposeAmidst the multifaceted changes taking place in our dynamic world, the study of screen usage habits and their impacts on children has emerged as a burgeoning area of research interest. The current research endeavors to investigate and establish the correlation that exists between screen usage patterns, behavioral challenges, and self-regulation capabilities within the demographic of children aged 4–6 years. Design and methodsIn the study, descriptive cross-sectional and relationship-seeking research model. The sample of the study consisted of 557 people with children between the ages of 4 and 6 years who voluntarily participated in the study between December 2022 and April 2023. The “Personal Information Form”,“Problematic Media Use Measure (PMUM)”, “Preschool Behavior Questionnaire” and “Instrument for Measuring Self-Regulation Skills” were used to collect data. ResultsIt was found that 53% of the children were girls, 87.4% lived in the city center. The rate of children with no siblings was 59.4%, 48.1% spent between 1 and 2 in front of a screen and 52.4% used mobile phones. Furthermore, there appears to be a reciprocal interaction among self-regulation skills, behavioral problems, and problematic internet usage. ConclusionIt can be asserted that as children's self-regulation skills increased, behavioral problems decreased and it can be asserted that as children's problematic internet use levels increased, behavioral problems also increased. Practice implicationsIn line with these results, pediatric and public health nurses have a great deal of work, parents should be made aware of these issues with large-scale trainings, and it should not be forgotten that these age groups are the most sensitive periods.

Exploring the complex links between childhood exposure to intimate partner violence, maltreatment, and self-regulation: A three-wave cross-lagged study

BackgroundIntimate partner violence (IPV) often co-occurs with childhood maltreatment and negatively impacts children's development. While previous research has shown a direct link between these experiences and children's self-regulation, less is known about the potential unique effect and bidirectional associations between them. ObjectiveThe present study aims to investigate the bidirectional effects among maternal IPV experiences, child maltreatment, and children's behavioral self-regulation. Participants and setting4,402 participants from three waves of the longitudinal study of the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) were included in the study. MethodsCross-lagged path analyses were conducted to examine the longitudinal reciprocal relationships among IPV, child maltreatment, and children's behavioral regulation when children were 3, 5, and 9 years old. ResultsIPV exposure at ages 3 and 5 was negatively associated with levels of behavioral self-regulation at ages 5 and 9, even after accounting for physical maltreatment, psychological maltreatment, or neglect. Neglect at ages 3 and 5 was found to be associated with lower levels of behavioral self-regulation at later ages, when IPV exposure was considered in the models. Lower levels of behavioral self-regulation at age 3 were found to be linked with higher levels of psychological maltreatment, physical maltreatment, neglect, and IPV exposure at age 5. ConclusionThis study revealed bidirectional effects between maternal IPV experiences, child maltreatment, and children's behavioral self-regulation. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that exposure to IPV during early childhood significantly predicts long-term behavioral self-regulation difficulties, even after controlling for the effects of child maltreatment.

Brief report: noise reduction in preschool from a self-regulated learning perspective-implementation of a game-based voice regulation training program.

An 8-week voice regulation training program (VRTP) incorporating everyday activities was implemented in an experimental preschool classroom (EG; n = 34), which was compared with a control preschool classroom (CG; n = 31). The VRTP includes songs, games, and conversations aiming to raise children's awareness of noise levels and teach voice modulation skills. Grounded in the theoretical framework of self-regulated learning, the study's objectives were to evaluate the impact of the VRTP on noise levels, children's self-regulation, and pre-literacy skills. Noise levels were assessed weekly using an electronic noise meter before and during the program. The EG preschoolers demonstrated modest but significant improvements over their pre-VRTP levels of voice modulation, behavioral and emotional self-regulated learning, and pre-literacy skills, in contrast with the CG children. The findings provide evidence that young children's self-regulation may be enhanced in preschool, challenging the field of developmental-educational psychology to consider self-regulated learning during early childhood.

Self-regulation in elementary school: Do teacher-reported effortful control and directly assessed executive function codevelop?

Self-regulation (SR) is a central developmental task of early childhood and is considered essential for children's success during elementary school. It has typically been conceptualized as effortful control (EC) or executive function (EF), drawing respectively on research traditions in temperament and cognitive development. These aspects of SR are theorized to emerge from an intertwined developmental process, but the nature of their relation throughout elementary school has not been established. In particular, it is not known whether ratings given by teachers based on behavioral observations align with those directly assessed via novel performance tasks. This article addresses this gap in the knowledge by examining the codevelopment of EC and EF with regard to intraindividual trajectories of change. Drawing on a national sample (N = 8,742) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 2010-2011, two longitudinal modeling approaches (parallel-process latent growth curves with structured residuals, Curran et al., 2014; multidimensional growth mixture models, Wickrama et al., 2021) were applied to examine children's SR between second and fifth grade. Overall, results do not reveal a systematic codevelopmental relation between EC and EF when accounting for intraindividual processes. Findings are discussed with regard to developmental theory and application. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Development and validation of a self-regulation scale within the German version of the Early Development Instrument

BackgroundEarly childhood self-regulation (SR) is key for many health- and education-related outcomes across the life span. Kindergarten age is a crucial period for SR development, and within this developmental window, potential SR difficulties can still be compensated for (e.g., through interventions). However, efficient measurement of SR through brief, comprehensive, and easy-to-use instruments that identify SR difficulties are scarce. To address this need, we used items of an internationally applied kindergarten teacher questionnaire—the Early Development Instrument (EDI) – to develop and validate a specific SR measurement scale.MethodsThe psychometric evaluation and validation of the selected SR-items was performed in data collected with the German version of the EDI (GEDI), in two independent data sets – (a) the development dataset, with 191 children, and b) the validation dataset, with 184 children. Both included three- to six-year-old children and contained retest and interrater reliability data. First, three independent raters—based on theory—selected items eligible to form a SR scale from the two SR-relevant GEDI domains "social competence" and "emotional maturity". Second, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling examined the item structure across both data sets. This resulted in a defined SR scale, of which internal consistency, test–retest and interrater reliability, cross-validation, and concurrent validity using correlation and descriptive agreements (Bland–Altman (BA) plots) with an existing validated SR-measuring instrument (the Kindergarten Behavioral Scales) were assessed.ResultsConfirmatory factor analysis across both data sets yielded the best fit indices with 13 of the GEDI 20 items initially deemed eligible for SR measurement, and a three-factor structure: a) behavioral response inhibition, b) cognitive inhibition, c) selective or focused attention (RMSEA: 0.019, CFI: 0.998). Psychometric evaluation of the resulting 13-item-GEDI-SR scale revealed good internal consistency (0.92), test–retest and interrater reliability (0.85 and 0.71, respectively), validity testing yielded stability across populations and good concurrent validity with the Kindergarten Behavioral Scales (Pearson correlation coefficient: mean 0.72, range 0.61 to 0.84).ConclusionsThe GEDI contains 13 items suitable to assess SR, either as part of regular EDI developmental monitoring or as a valid stand-alone scale. This short 13-item (G)EDI-SR scale may allow early detection of children with SR difficulties in the kindergarten setting in future and could be the basis for public health intervention planning. To attain this goal, future research should establish appropriate reference values using a representative standardization sample.