Children's Externalizing Research Articles

Symptoms and synchrony: Mother and child internalizing problems moderate respiratory sinus arrhythmia concordance in mother–preadolescent dyads.

Physiological synchrony, or concordance, among caregiver-child dyads involves the matching of biological states. Understanding this process is critical for enhancing our knowledge of the ways that the caregiver-child relationship supports child development. However, the meaning of physiological synchrony for child adjustment is poorly understood. This study examined physiological synchrony in respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), an indicator of parasympathetic activity, between 87 mothers (M age = 35.30 years, SD = 6.71 years) and their preadolescent children (M age = 10.36 years, SD = 1. 19 years, 52.9% girls). Dyads, all of which were from economically impoverished backgrounds, participated in 3 tasks that varied in the level of interaction that was required between the partners. Mothers self-reported their own depressive symptoms and rated their children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Physiological synchrony was generally strongest in tasks requiring the greatest levels of interaction among partners. Further, RSA synchrony was positive in the context of low levels of maternal depressive and child internalizing symptoms, and negative in the context of high levels of such symptoms, though results varied by task. Child externalizing symptoms did not moderate the RSA concordance process. The results identify both proximal and distal contexts in which physiological synchrony occurs, which ultimately broadens our understanding of the meaning and significance of parent-child physiological synchrony. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Interaction between adoptive mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms in risk for children's emerging problem behavior.

The effect of parental depression on children's adjustment has been well documented, with exposure during early childhood particularly detrimental. Most studies that examine links between parental depression and child behavior are confounded methodologically because they focus on parents raising children who are genetically related to them. Another limitation of most prior research is a tendency to focus only on the effects of maternal depression while ignoring the influence of fathers' depression. The purpose of this study was to examine whether infants' exposure to both parents' depressive symptoms, and inherited risk from birth mother internalizing symptoms, was related to school age children's externalizing and internalizing problems. Study data come from a longitudinal adoption study of 561 adoptive parents, biological mothers, and adopted children. Adoptive fathers' depressive symptoms during infancy contributed independent variance to the prediction of children's internalizing symptoms and also moderated associations between adoptive mothers' depressive symptoms and child externalizing symptoms.

Mothering under political violence: Post-traumatic symptoms, observed maternal parenting practices and child externalising behaviour.

Using the family stress model as our conceptual framework, we explored whether observed maternal parenting practices (positive and coercive) account for the associations between mothers' post-traumatic stress symptoms and children's externalising behaviours. Mothers' self-reported post-traumatic stress symptoms, observed maternal practices, and reports of children's externalising behaviour were collected from 123 Israeli mothers and their children, who were exposed to ongoing rocket attacks in southern Israel. A structural equation model revealed that mothers' post-traumatic stress symptoms were linked with greater maternal coercive parenting practices, which in turn were associated with more externalising behaviours in children. The study highlights the crucial role of maternal distress and mothers' parenting skills in the development of externalising behaviours in children exposed to chronic political violence. These results suggest that prevention interventions designed to promote parenting skills for mothers exposed to political violence may be beneficial for children's healthy development.

The relationship between parental conflict and preschool children's behavior problems: A moderated mediation model of parenting stress and child emotionality

Based on process model and the organism-environment interaction model, the present study examined a possible pathway to better understand the relationships between parental conflict and their children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems through parenting stress and child emotionality. Mothers (N = 2925) of preschool children in China completed questionnaires regarding parental conflict, children's behavior problems, parenting stress, and child emotionality. Results indicated that parenting stress partially mediated the association between parental conflict and both of children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. The mediating effects of parenting stress in the relationship between parental conflict and children's behavior problems were moderated by child emotionality. Specifically, the relationship between parental conflict and children's behavior problems via parenting stress was stronger for children with high (vs. low) negative emotionality. Limitations and implications of this study were discussed.

Maternal prenatal depressive symptoms and risk for early-life psychopathology in offspring: genetic analyses in the Norwegian Mother and Child Birth Cohort Study

Maternal prenatal depression is a known risk factor for early-life psychopathology among offspring; however, potential risk transmission mechanisms need to be distinguished. We aimed to test the relative importance of passive genetic transmission, direct exposure, and indirect exposure in the association between maternal prenatal depressive symptoms and early-life internalising and externalising psychopathology in offspring. We used structural equation modelling of phenotypic data and genetically informative relationships from the families of participants in the Norwegian Mother and Child Birth Cohort Study (MoBa). The analytic subsample of MoBa used in the current study comprises 22 195 mothers and 35 299 children. We used mothers' self-reported depressive symptoms during pregnancy, as captured by the Symptom Checklist, and their reports of symptoms of psychopathology in their offspring during the first few years of life (measured at 18, 36, and 60 months using the Child Behavior Checklist). Maternal prenatal depressive symptoms were found to be associated with early-life psychopathology primarily via intergenerationally shared genetic factors, which explained 41% (95% CI 36-46) of variance in children's internalising problems and 37% (30-44) of variance in children's externalising problems. For internalising problems, phenotypic transmission also contributed significantly, accounting for 14% (95% CI 5-19) of the association, but this contribution was found to be explained by exposure to concurrent maternal depressive symptoms, rather than by direct exposure in utero. Associations between maternal prenatal depressive symptoms and offspring behavioural outcomes in early childhood are likely to be at least partially explained by shared genes. This genetic confounding should be considered when attempting to quantify risks posed by in-utero exposure to maternal depressive symptoms. UK Economic and Social Research Council, Norwegian Research Council, Norwegian Ministries of Health and Care Services, and Education & Research, Wellcome Trust, Royal Society, and National Institute for Health Research.

Maternal depression alters stress and immune biomarkers in mother and child.

Exposure to maternal depression bears long-term negative consequences for children's well-being. Yet, no study has tested the joint contribution of maternal and child's hypothalamic pituitary axis and immune systems in mediating the effects of maternal depression on child psychopathology. We followed a birth cohort over-represented for maternal depression from birth to 10 years (N=125). At 10 years, mother and child's cortisol (CT) and secretory immunoglobulin A (s-IgA), biomarkers of the stress and immune systems, were assayed, mother-child interaction observed, mothers and children underwent psychiatric diagnosis, and children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms reported. Depressed mothers had higher CT and s-IgA levels and displayed more negative parenting, characterized by negative affect, intrusion, and criticism. Children of depressed mothers exhibited more Axis-I disorders, higher s-IgA levels, and greater social withdrawal. Structural equation modeling charted four paths by which maternal depression impacted child externalizing and internalizing symptoms: (a) increasing maternal CT, which linked with higher child CT and behavior problems; (b) augmenting maternal and child's immune response, which were associated with child symptoms; (c) enhancing negative parenting that predicted child social withdrawal and symptoms; and (d), via a combined endocrine-immune pathway suppressing symptom formation. Our findings, the first to test stress and immune biomarkers in depressed mothers and their children in relation to social behavior, describe mechanisms of endocrine synchrony in shaping children's stress response and immunity, advocate the need to follow the long-term effects of maternal depression on children's health throughout life, and highlight maternal depression as an important public health concern.

Prospective associations between childhood externalising and internalising problems and adolescent alcohol and drug use: The Bergen Child Study.

Aims:The literature on associations between internalising problems and subsequent alcohol/drug use and problems shows mixed results, and it is important to consider different aspects of internalising problems along with co-occurring externalising problems.Methods:In a longitudinal study (n = 2438) followed up when the subjects were 7–9, 11–13, and 16–19 years of age, we investigated associations between parent/teacher-reported externalising and internalising problems (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, SDQ) and adolescent self-reported alcohol and illicit drug use and problems. Socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and age were included as potential confounding variables. We also adjusted for the potential confounding effects from externalising problems on the association between internalising problems and alcohol/drug use, and vice versa.Results:Externalising problems were positively associated with all measures of alcohol/drug use and problems (adjusted odds ratios [AORs] ranging from 1.24 to 1.40, all p < .05), while internalising problems were negatively associated with all measures of alcohol/drug use (AORs ranging 0.83 to 0.88, all p < .05). Full-scale SDQ externalising problems were somewhat stronger and more robust predictors of adolescent alcohol/drug-related problems compared with SDQ externalising subscales, while only full-scale SDQ internalising problems were negatively associated with alcohol/drug-related problems. All estimates were similar across genders.Conclusions:Childhood externalising problems are positively associated while internalising problems are negatively associated with alcohol/drug use and problems in late adolescence.

A review of recent literature on the impact of parental substance use disorders on children and the provision of effective services.

To provide an update of recent studies of the incidence and impact of parental substance use disorders (SUDs) on children, and to identify effective treatment programs to assist parents with SUDs and their children. Children of parents with alcohol and drug use disorders (COPADs) suffer from physical, mental and behavioral problems at higher rates than other children and are more likely to develop their own SUDs in adolescence. Parenting styles and familial dysfunction contribute to the intergenerational transmission of SUDs. Studies of the negative effects of parental SUDs on children identified the effects of inconsistent, disengaged or harsh parenting practices on mother-child bonding. Exposure to violence and father's hostility contribute to children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Family- based intervention programs, as well as programs for mothers with SUDs and their young children, have shown positive results. For high-risk families with multiple needs, the ongoing support of multidisciplinary services is required. Parental SUDs have a profound impact on their children, including intergenerational transmission of SUDs. A variety of interventive programs are being studied in order to devise effective programs to assist these children.

Testing the Autoregressive Cross-Lagged Effects Among Paternal Depression, Affective Parenting and Children's Externalizing Behavior Problems

Objective The study examined the longitudinal relationship among paternal depression, affective parenting and children's externalizing behavior problems. Methods Data were obtained from the fifth, sixth, and seventh waves of preschooler father cohort (N = 1,694) of the Panel Study on Korean Children. Autoregressive cross-lagged model was used to analyze data from the three waves. Results The major longitudinal findings are as follows. First, paternal depression, affective parenting and children's externalizing behavior problem were consistently stable over time. Second, paternal prior depression had a significantly negative effect on later affective parenting, and prior affective parenting affect externalizing behavior problems negatively. Conclusion The findings showed that paternal prior depression decreases affective parenting and makes children's externalizing behavior problems worse. It highlighted that educational interventions for fathers to get over depression are likely to reduce the negative influence of parenting on children's externalizing behavior problems. Keywords: paternal depression, affective parenting, externalizing behavior problems, autoregressive cross-lagged, longitudinal study

Self-Efficacy and Problem Behaviors of School Bully Victims: Evidence from Rural China

Although the preventive role of self-efficacy for school bully has been well established, less is known as with the association between self-efficacy and problem behaviors adoption among children who are already school bully victims. In this cross-sectional study, we examined the clustered nature of problem behaviors among school bully victims and tested problem behavior clusters’ association with self-efficacy using latent class analysis and multinomial logistic regression. Participants included 262 Chinese rural students who were recognized as being regularly bullied while without bullying behaviors in school in the past 3 months (60.1% male, age range 12–16). We found that the victims could be categorized into three different groups according to their problem behaviors pattern, namely the “externalizing and internalizing behaviors” group, the “internalizing behaviors” group, and the “less-affected” group. After controlling for the covariates (i.e., gender, age, living arrangement, and relationship quality with father and mother), we found that higher self-efficacy indicated higher probability of falling into the group with relatively less negative influence from school bullying. We also found that gender, living arrangement, and relationship quality with mother were associated with bully victims’ problem behaviors pattern. The comorbidity between and within childhood externalizing and internalizing behaviors and self-efficacy’s association with different problem behavior patterns were discussed. The future research should test the causality between self-efficacy and problem behaviors of bully victims, as well as the effectiveness of self-efficacy enhancement intervention for victims adopting different problem behavior patterns.

Bidirectional effects between parenting sensitivity and child behavior: A cross-lagged analysis across middle childhood and adolescence.

Using a longitudinal, cross-lagged design, this study examined the bidirectional relations between mothers' and fathers' sensitivity and children's externalizing (EXT) and internalizing (INT) behavior from middle childhood into adolescence. The subsample comprised families (N = 578) in which the mother and father cohabitated from the study's first time point (child age = 54 months) through Age 15 in the longitudinal NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Study results revealed differential patterns for mother-child and father-child relations in the full sample and separately for males and females. The full cross-lagged models revealed that child EXT behavior predicted maternal sensitivity, but not vice versa, and fathers' sensitivity and child behavior were reciprocally interrelated. There was a significant indirect pathway from early paternal sensitivity to later EXT in males, and from early maternal sensitivity to INT in females. The results point to the important roles that fathers play in child INT and EXT behaviors and important differences between males and females. (PsycINFO Database Record

Special Issue: Relational Trauma and Family Therapy

Special Issue: Relational Trauma and Family Therapy

Evening and night work schedules and children's social and emotional well-being

ABSTRACTAn emerging body of evidence shows that parents’ non-standard work schedules have a detrimental effect on children's well-being. However, only a limited number of studies have investigated mediating factors that underpin this association. Likewise, only a few studies have examined the impact of fathers’ non-standard work schedules on children's well-being. Based on data from the Families in Germany Study (FiD), this study aimed to address these research gaps. The sample consists of parents and their children at ages 7–8 and 9–10 (n = 838 child observations in dual-earner families). The data were collected in the years 2010–2013. Non-standard work hours were defined as working in evenings and or at night (every day, several times a week, or changing as shifts). Children's social and emotional well-being was measured with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The findings show that both mothers’ and fathers’ evening and night work schedules are linked to an increase in children's externalizing and internalizing behavior and that this association is partially mediated by mothers’ and fathers’ harsh and strict parenting, with a stronger mediation effect for fathers parenting.

A correlational study of children's externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems in relation to mother-child and teacher-child relationships

The purpose of this research is to find out the connection between mother and teacher relationships and externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems of 48'60-month-old children. In this regard, a correlational study was conducted with teachers (n=59) and mothers (n=252) of 48'60-month-old pre-school children in a metropolitan city in Turkey. Data collected through Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scale (PKBS), Student' Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS), and Child'Parent Relationship Scale (CPRS). Study results showed that children's internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems have direct connection with their relationships with their mothers and teachers. When children's conflicts with their teachers and mothers increase, their intimacy decrease with them. It was also found that as the children's conflicts with their mothers increase, conflicts with their teachers also increase. According to findings of the study; there is a need to provide in service and pre-service trainings for teachers and pre-service teachers about the importance of quality relation with children, methods, problem solving skills and especially right approaches to problematic children. Also, as one of the pre-conditions of positive teacher-child relationship is a positive teacher-family relationship, both parents' and teachers' awareness should be raised about family involvement.

Middle Childhood Problem Behaviors: Testing the Transaction Between Responsive Parenting, Temperament, and Attachment-Related Processing Biases

The current study tested a transactional model including children’s (N = 122, 10–13 years old) emotional reactivity, maternal responsiveness, and attachment-related interpretation bias to explain childhood externalizing, internalizing, and total problem behaviors. Children’s emotional reactivity was related to externalizing, internalizing, and total problem behaviors. Maternal responsiveness was related to externalizing and total problem behaviors. Attachment-related interpretation bias was not directly related to any type of problem behavior. In line with the transactional model’s prediction, a three-way interaction between these factors was found for internalizing and total problem behaviors, suggesting that children, who are more emotionally reactive, experience little maternal responsiveness, are more vulnerable to experience distress, and have learned to interpret mother’s ambiguous behavior as unsupportive, are most at risk to display internalizing and total problem behaviors. Results suggest that attachment-related interpretation bias appears to play a role in childhood problem behaviors in the presence of other risk factors.

Teacher-child interactions and kindergartners' task behaviors: Observations based on interpersonal theory

The present study examined how teachers' interpersonal behaviors (control, affiliation) and complementarity tendencies (i.e., return low control with high control and high affiliation with similar affiliation) were related to children's task behaviors (engagement, performance). Furthermore, we investigated whether the strength of these associations depended on children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Our sample included 48 teachers and 179 kindergartners (94 boys; mean age=66.75months) who were selected to represent a variation of externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Independent observers rated teachers' interpersonal behaviors and children's task behaviors. Teacher control was negatively related to both children's task engagement and performance, whereas teacher affiliation was not associated with children's task behaviors. Furthermore, associations between teachers' complementarity tendencies on control and children's task performance depended on the level of control that children displayed themselves. To conclude, teachers should be made aware that controlling behaviors could be detrimental for children's task behaviors.

Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia Activity Predicts Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors in Non-referred Boys.

Atypical respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), a biomarker of emotion dysregulation, is associated with both externalizing and internalizing behaviors. In addition, social adversity and gender may moderate this association. In this study, we investigated if RSA (both resting RSA and RSA reactivity in an emotion regulation task) predicts externalizing and/or internalizing behaviors and the extent to which social adversity moderates this relationship. Two hundred and fifty-three children (at Time 1, mean age = 9.05, SD = 0.60, 48% boys) and their caregivers from the community participated in this study. Resting RSA and RSA reactivity were assessed, and caregivers reported children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors at both Time 1 and Time 2 (1 year later). We found that lower resting RSA (but not RSA reactivity) at Time 1 was associated with increased externalizing and internalizing behaviors at Time 2 in boys, even after controlling for the effects of Time 1 behavioral problems and Time 2 age. Moreover, there was a significant interaction effect between Time 1 resting RSA and social adversity such that lower resting RSA predicted higher externalizing and internalizing behaviors in boys only under conditions of high social adversity. Follow-up analyses revealed that these predictive effects were stronger for externalizing behavior than for internalizing behavior. No significant effects were found for girls. Our findings provide further evidence that low resting RSA may be a transdiagnostic biomarker of emotion dysregulation and a predisposing risk factor for both types of behavior problems, in particular for boys who grow up in adverse environments. We conclude that biosocial interaction effects and gender differences should be considered when examining the etiological mechanisms of child psychopathology.

Mental health of preschool foster care children: How do foster families influence the way children cope with trauma?

Mental health of preschool foster care children: How do foster families influence the way children cope with trauma? Abstract. Parents and other significant persons have an important role when preschool children develop or cope with psychological symptoms following traumatic experiences. The underlying mechanisms of the interaction between traumatic experiences and influences of the foster family are still unclear. This study investigates foster parents' stress levels and parenting styles as moderators or mediators in the context of trau- matic experiences. Foster parents of 286 children between three and seven years participated in an online or paper-and-pencil survey. The results suggest a connection between the traumatic experiences of foster children and the stress levels as well as the parenting styles of their foster parents. While verbosity and laxness as parenting styles moderated the impact of traumatic experiences on externalising symptoms, stress levels mediated the impact of traumatic experiences on children's internalising and externalising symptoms. The results underscore the necessity of standardized preparation of and support for foster parents in order to avoid deterioration of psychological symptoms following traumatic events.

Child-care quality moderates the association between maternal depression and children's behavioural outcome.

Maternal depression is a risk factor for adverse outcomes in the child, including emotional and behavioural difficulties. There is evidence that child care attendance during the preschool years may moderate associations between familial risk factors and child outcome. However, the possibility that high-quality child care provides protection for children exposed to maternal depression or that low-quality child care provides additional riskhas not been investigated. We study whether child-care quality moderates the association between probable history of maternal depression (PMD) and child behavioural and emotional outcomes over the preschool period. Within a longitudinal study, we examined PMD (no depression; clinical PMD before the child's birth; subclinical PMD from 0 to 5years; clinical PMD from 0 to 5years), child-care quality and child emotional and behavioural difficulties at the ages of 2, 3 and 4years. Child-care quality was evaluated in settings, and trajectories were calculated to reflect (a) global quality and (b) two quality subfactors: 'Teaching and interactions' and 'Provision for learning'. Data were analysed for 264 families. Significant interactions emerged between clinical PMD and global quality of child care for children's externalising behaviour (b=-.185, p=.008), more specifically hyperactivity/inattention (b=-.237, p=.002). In the context of clinical PMD, children attending high-quality child care presented fewer difficulties than those attending a low-quality care. Child-care quality was not associated with outcomes for children whose mothers did not report a PMD or a PMD before their birth. In the context of PMD, high-quality child care was associated with fewer behavioural problems and may thus constitute a protective factor.

Reciprocal Relations Between Harsh Discipline and Children's Externalizing Behavior in China: A 5-Year Longitudinal Study.

This research examined the overtime reciprocal relations between maternal and paternal harsh discipline and children's externalizing behavior. Seven hundred two father-mother dyads of children (6-9years of age at baseline) completed measures of parental harsh discipline and children's externalizing behavior at five time points, 1year apart. Autoregressive latent trajectory models revealed that maternal and paternal corporal punishment predicted subsequent children's externalizing behavior (parent-driven effects), whereas children's externalizing behavior predicted subsequent maternal and paternal psychological aggression (child-driven effects). The parent-driven effects became stronger, whereas the child-driven effects were equally strong across time. Furthermore, the parent-driven effects for corporal punishment were found for both boys and girls, whereas the child-driven effects for psychological aggression were found only for boys.