Turkish Immigrant Children Research Articles

Family and Individual Factors Associated with Turkish Immigrant and German Children’s and Adolescents’ Mental Health

Turkish immigrants represent the largest ethnic minority in Germany however information about the factors associated with their children’s mental health is scarce. This study examined family and individual factors associated with the strengths and difficulties of Turkish immigrant children and adolescents in comparison with their German peers. Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires (SDQs) were rated by participants’ mothers (N = 480) and teachers (n = 164). Compared with German mothers (n = 121), Turkish immigrant mothers (n = 359) rated their children’s total difficulties, their emotional symptoms and peer problems as well as their prosocial behavior as significantly higher. In contrast, there were no differences in the participating teachers’ ratings of Turkish immigrant compared with German children’s strengths and difficulties. Regression analyses revealed that child gender and family adversity were cross-culturally associated with SDQ scores whereas inconsistent parenting only affected German children’s externalizing behavior problems. Factors associated with Turkish immigrant and German children’s mental health problems are thus both cross-culturally comparable and culturally specific. More information is needed in order to identify individuals at highest risk to develop certain types of behavior problems and provide specific prevention strategies.

Socio-economic Background and Early Post-compulsory Education Pathways: A Comparison between Natives and Second-generation Immigrants in Switzerland

This article investigates the differences in post-compulsory education pathways between natives and second-generation immigrants in Switzerland. It analyses to which extent the socioeconomic background explains the different post-compulsory education trajectories of children of Swiss and second-generation immigrants. Using data from the Transition from Education to Employment survey (TREE), we use Optimal Matching Analysis to identify typical transitions encompassing the 7 years that follow the end of compulsory school and logistic regression to analyse the differences between native-born children and second-generation immigrants. In the first part of the article, we show that second-generation immigrants from low-skilled waves of migration are more likely to follow lower vocational tracks and to have an early transition into working class occupations. We also find that second-generation immigrants present higher likelihood of transition into ‘Not in education, employment, or training’ (NEET). In the second part of the article, we show that the early transition into working class occupations is entirely explained by socio-economic factors. We also demonstrate that, for the children of Portuguese, former-Yugoslav, Albanian, and Turkish immigrants, the socio-economic background plays a minor role in explaining the transitions into NEET. In this case, a disadvantage persists even after socio-economic background is taken into account in the model.

The second-language vocabulary trajectories of Turkish immigrant children in Norway from ages five to ten: the role of preschool talk exposure, maternal education, and co-ethnic concentration in the neighborhood

Little research has explored how preschools can support children's second-language (L2) vocabulary development. This study keenly followed the progress of twemty-six Turkish immigrant children growing up in Norway from preschool (age five) to fifth grade (age ten). Four different measures of preschool talk exposure (amount and diversity of teacher-led group talk and amount and diversity of peer talk), as well as the demographic variables of maternal education and co-ethnic concentration in the neighborhood, were employed to predict the children's L2 vocabulary trajectories. The results of growth analyses revealed that maternal education was the only variable predicting children's vocabulary growth during the elementary years. However, teacher-led talk, peer talk, and neighborhood predicted children's L2 vocabulary skills at age five, and these differences were maintained up to age ten. This study underscores the importance of both preschool talk exposure (teacher-led talk and peer talk) and demographic factors on L2 learners' vocabulary development.

Gender, Conflict and Subordination within the Household: Turkish Migrant Marriage and Divorce in Denmark

The European-raised children of Turkish immigrants often marry spouses from their parents' home country. This article investigates the interplay between gender and residency when such transnational couples develop the culture of their newly formed households. While migration scholars state that such household culture is constructed as a ‘bricolage’ of elements from both the country of cultural origin and the present host country, they pay little attention to the influence of both gender and power on this process. Drawing on a body of life-story interviews, the article compares the narratives of one male and one female marriage migrant to Denmark, both of whose marriages ended in divorce. Life in these households, as well as their processes of dissolution, shows how Danish residency may empower the European spouse, regardless of gender. Although ethnic minority women raised in Europe may seek to use this power to shape their household culture into a more gender-equal ‘bricolage’, they may remain embedded within the broader patriarchal structures of the immigrant community.

Educational achievement of second-generation immigrants: an international comparison*

This paper compares the educational attainment of second-generation immigrants with that of children born to native parents in several OECD countries. We show that the average gap in test scores of children of immigrants and natives differs widely across countries, and is strongly related to achievement differences in the parent generation. The disadvantage of immigrant children reduces, and even disappears for some countries, once we condition on parental background characteristics. A foreign language spoken at home is the single most important factor associated with the achievement gap. An alternative reference group to native children are children born to non-emigrants in the country of origin. We compare mathematics test scores of children of Turkish immigrants in several destination countries, to those of Turkish children in Turkey whose parents have not emigrated. We find that in most host countries, the test score achievement of the children of Turkish immigrants (although being lower than that of their native peers) is higher than that of children of their cohort in the home country. This is conditional and unconditional on parental background characteristics. The higher school- and peer- quality relative to that in the home country is a main determinant of the educational advantage of immigrant children. — Christian Dustmann, Tommaso Frattini and Gianandrea Lanzara

The Settlement Country and Ethnic Identification of Children of Turkish Immigrants in Germany, France, and the Netherlands: What Role Do National Integration Policies Play?

Germany, France, and the Netherlands have pursued different types of integration policies. Using data from a mixed method study, this paper investigates whether and how these differences have affected the settlement country and ethnic identification of the children of Turkish immigrants. The results indicate that integration policies do not affect ethnic identification, but an inclusive policy has a positive impact on settlement country identification. Multicultural policies do not seem to have any effect. Despite processes of exclusion and self-exclusion in all three countries, our respondents have developed a strong connection to their settlement country and in particular to their place of residence.

Mothers' and Fathers' Bookreading Predicts Preschoolers' Development in Turkish Immigrant and German Families

comparing associations between early literacy related activities and developmental outcome among ethnically diverse groups of children are scarce. The aims of this study were to: (a) document the differences in Turkish immigrant (n = 79) and German (n = 88) preschool children's home literacy environment (HLE), cognitive, and speaking proficiency test scores, (b) identify predictors of HLE and developmental status, and (c) disentangle effects of education and ethnicity on children's HLE and developmental status. Turkish immigrant children, on average, had lower HLE, cognitive, and speaking proficiency test scores when compared to their German peers. After controlling for parent education, HLE predicted children's test scores in both groups. Similarities in predictive patterns emphasize positive effects of a stimulating HLE for young children's development, irrespective of the cultural specificity of dyadic bookreading. Our findings suggest that increased efforts should be made to develop culturally sensitive intervention strategies to facilitate access to print materials for children and to promote both mothers' and fathers' bookreading.

Educational Achievement of Second Generation Immigrants: An International Comparison

This paper compares the educational attainment of second‐generation immigrants with that of children born to native parents in several OECD countries. We show that the average gap in test scores of children of immigrants and natives differs widely across countries, and is strongly related to achievement differences in the parent generation. The disadvantage of immigrant children reduces, and even disappears for some countries, once we condition on parental background characteristics. A foreign language spoken at home is the single most important factor associated with the achievement gap. An alternative reference group to native children are children born to non‐emigrants in the country of origin. We compare mathematics test scores of children of Turkish immigrants in several destination countries, to those of Turkish children in Turkey whose parents have not emigrated. We find that in most host countries, the test score achievement of the children of Turkish immigrants (although being lower than that of their native peers) is higher than that of children of their cohort in the home country. This is conditional and unconditional on parental background characteristics. The higher school‐ and peer‐ quality relative to that in the home country is a main determinant of the educational advantage of immigrant children.

Serum carotenoids and atopy among children of different ethnic origin living in Germany

The manifestation of atopy in early life is thought to be influenced by the diet. We hypothesized that the previously reported lower prevalence of atopy among Turkish immigrant children in Germany might be related to a different pattern of serum carotenoids. Serum carotenoid concentrations were measured in pre-school children of different ethnic origin from Berlin, D. German children (D, N = 49) were compared to Turkish children with well (TR-D, N = 32) or weak cultural adaptation (TR-TR, N = 41). Serum levels of pro-vitamin A carotenoids (α- and β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin) and non-pro-vitamin A carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene) were measured by high performance liquid chromatography. Serum IgE to common inhalant allergens was measured by immunoassay. Median levels of pro-vitamin A carotenoids were lower in Turkish children if compared to German children: D 135 μg/L, TR-D 100 μg/L (p = 0.025), TR-TR 82 μg/L (p = 0.001). By contrast, median levels of non-pro-vitamin A carotenoids were not higher in German children. The ratio of pro-vitamin A to non-pro-vitamin A carotenoid median levels was highest among D (2.05), lower among TR-D (1.32; p = 0.001) and lowest among TR-TR (1.26; p < 0.001)). A higher ratio was not significantly associated with atopy (atopic 1.79, non-atopic 1.36; p = 0.067). Pro-vitamin A carotenoids are higher in children originating from a cultural population with a higher prevalence of atopy, but atopy seems not to be directly related to the current carotenoid serum levels in children at school age. The distinct pattern of carotenoid levels among Turkish migrant and German children indicates changed nutrition patterns with acculturation.

Who Profits Most from Early Parental Investments? The Effects of Activities Inside and Outside the Family on German and Turkish Children’s Language Development

This paper analyses the effects of direct and indirect early parental investments on the German-language development of 3–5-year-old children of Turkish immigrants and native German children. Since Turkish parents are on average less proficient in German than native parents, it is hypothesised that Turkish children cannot profit as much as German children from activities inside the family (e.g., frequency of parental reading to child). For the same reason, activities outside the family (e.g., attendance at playgroups) might then be of special importance for their acquisition of German-language skills. Used for the empirical analyses are the data of the project ‘Preschool Education and Educational Careers among Migrant Children’, which includes a repeated measure of children’s German vocabulary over a one-year period. It is demonstrated that German children can profit more than Turkish children from activities inside the family, while the opposite is true regarding activities outside the family. Additional analyses with the Turkish sample show that a higher frequency of activities inside the family improves Turkish children’s German vocabulary only under the condition that their parents have a good command of German. The findings indicate that activities outside the family are a very effective means of fostering development of the second language among migrant children.

Different settings, different choosers? Applying Ball’s framework on the case of second‐generation Turks

This article examines the applicability of Ball’s categorisation of ethnic minority students as contingent and embedded choosers in the context of higher education choice. Considering the role of the selective school system in shaping the educational careers of the children of Turkish immigrants in the Netherlands the study uses case studies to illustrate the interplay of social class background with the educational structure. The cases of educationally successful second‐generation Turks interviewed in the city of Amsterdam clearly illustrate the significance of early tracking in regulating the educational outcomes of pupils of immigrant origin, thus determining their chances for educational advancement and social mobility.

Children of Turkish Immigrants in Germany and the Netherlands: The Impact of Differences in Vocational and Academic Tracking Systems

Background/ContextMuch research is being done on Turkish immigrants and their children in Germany and the Netherlands, but almost always from a national perspective. To compare the situation, for example, regarding educational outcomes across the two countries has proved to be very difficult because of different sets, selection criteria, and time periods for statistical data on immigrant populations. However, those data, which are actually available and comparable to at least some degree, already show how strongly the differences in educational attainment and labor market integration of Turkish immigrants depend on structural and systemic differences in the ways that education is organized in Germany and the Netherlands.Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of StudyThe article analyzes available data on young Turkish immigrants and native-born second generations and their educational success in the two countries with the major Turkish populations in Western Europe. It aims to direct the focus away from group background characteristics, which are actually quite similar, to the influence of institutional arrangements and the way that the educational system facilitates (or not) the educational integration of Turkish youth.Research DesignThe article is based on publicly collected and available data on the Turkish populations in Germany and the Netherlands. This mainly refers to the Dutch SPVA surveys and the German micro-census and Integration Survey.Conclusions/RecommendationsThe findings show that more than group characteristics, systemic and institutional factors can have a decisive role in promoting or hampering the educational and labor market integration of young immigrants and the native-born second generation. The greater openness of the Dutch school system to provide “long routes” and “second chances” shows its effect in significantly higher shares of Turks in higher education. On the other side, the dual system of vocational training in Germany seems to be better suited for labor market integration, especially because apprenticeships are more practice oriented and do count as work experience for later application procedures. The Dutch system also offers better opportunities for girls than does the German system. Yet, the polarization effect between “high achievement” and “failure” of only partial integration success is greater in the Netherlands, whereas the overall advancement is slower, but also less polarizing, in Germany. In this sense, each country could learn something from its neighbor regarding those aspects of the institutional and systemic setting that apparently fail to do the job well enough.

Off to a good start? Vocabulary development and differences in early family and classroom experiences of children from native-dutch and immigrant families in the Netherlands

The present study examined the relationship between language learning contexts in family and classroom, and vocabulary development in the school language of native speakers and bilingual Turkish and Moroccan immigrant children in the Netherlands. The findings of this study offer insights for educational psychologists, teachers, and policy makers, as to how ethnic-cultural and socio-economic differences between families shape the language learning opportunities of young children at the start of their school careers and how these learning opportunities in the context of home and the classroom contribute to early language advantages and disadvantages that have been found to be important predictors of later school success.The measures spanned the months around the time children started kindergarten. Home literacy activities and family characteristics were measured with a questionnaire, administered during personal interviews with mothers. Children’s Dutch vocabulary test scores were assessed with a test designed for bilingual research. Teachers filled out a questionnaire about classroom demographics and their classroom language practices. Differences in children’s home literacy experiences predicted differences in vocabulary skills before the start of school, and differences in vocabulary growth from that time until two months into school participation. Home literacy experiences in the family context were less favourable for the children from the two immigrant groups, but for different reasons. Classroom characteristics explained additional differences in Dutch vocabulary growth and were less positive for children from immigrant families. This combination of less profitable home and classroom conditions for the children from the two immigrant groups helps explain why these children did not show a stronger increase in vocabulary skills once they were submersed in the Dutch language context of the classroom.

Ethnicity, schooling, and merit in the Netherlands

A B S T R A C T We examine to what extent ethnicity affects academic ability measured in the first year of secondary school and secondary school type in the Netherlands. We focus on second-generation immigrants. The empirical results indicate that academic ability (both in mathematics and language) is not affected by ethnicity, independent of parents' occupation, education, and resources. On a bi-variate level, children of Turkish and Moroccan immigrants in the Netherlands are found relatively often in lower tracks in secondary school. This relationship is fully driven by social class and merit, operationalized as including ability and effort. Moreover, children of Turkish, Surinamese and Antillean migrants are, relative to Dutch children from similar backgrounds and merit, more often found in higher tracks in secondary school. However, given the very skewed distribution of educational attainment of immigrants, it is questionable whether `class versus ethnicity models' can accurately compare achievements of native and immigrant children in the Netherlands.

Een cross-culturele vergelijking van emotionele problemen en gedragsproblemen bij Nederlandse kinderen en Turkse migrantenkinderen

Summary Professionals in somatic and mental health care have to adjust their methods, knowledge and skills to the needs of immigrant children and their parents in order to provide adequate care. Cross-cultural comparisons on the prevalence of emotional and behavioral problems and the factors that increase or reduce the risks for these problems will support clinical reasoning and practice. Described are two studies in which the prevalence of and risk factors for emotional and behavioral problems in multiple cultures are compared while using the Child Behavior Checklist, a parent checklist that produces problem scores. Dutch children and adolescents show low levels of emotional and behavioral problems in comparison to children in eleven other cultures measured with similar methodology. However, Dutch adolescents score remarkably high on attention problems and this score is above the omni-cultural mean. Sweden and Germany score lower on all syndromes indicating that opportunities exist for Dutch youth to reduce the levels of emotional and behavioral problems. Turkish immigrant childrenand adolescents score higher than Dutch children on internalizing and externalizing and higher than Turkish children on externalizing. The difference between Turkish immigrant children and Dutch children is larger than the difference between immigrant and Turkish children. Marked are these differences on the CBCL syndrome anxious/depressed where immigrant children score the highest. Support is found for the notion that increase in integration will lead to reduction in levels of problems in immigrant children and adolescents. Mental disorders in parents, convictions and incarceration, marital problems, poverty, and overburdening of mothers increase the risk for emotional and behavioral problems.

Teacher-reported problem behaviour in Turkish immigrant and Dutch children: a cross-cultural comparison.

To compare problem behaviour in Turkish immigrant children living in the Netherlands versus problem behaviour in Dutch children from the general population as reported by teachers. Teacher's Report Forms (TRF) were filled out by Dutch teachers, and for a subsample also by Turkish immigrant teachers, concerning 524 Turkish immigrant children selected randomly from the immigrant population in two large cities in the Netherlands. TRFs completed for Turkish immigrant children were compared with TRFs filled out for 1625 children selected randomly from the Dutch general population. No significant differences were revealed between children from both cultures on the TRF total problems, internalizing, externalizing and specific syndrome scales. Turkish immigrant teachers, however, reported higher total problems, internalizing and anxious/depressed scores for immigrant children than did Dutch teachers for the same immigrant children. No significant differences were found in the levels of behavioural and emotional problems reported by Dutch teachers for Turkish immigrant versus Dutch children. However, Turkish immigrant teachers reported high levels of anxiety and depression in immigrant children which go largely undetected by their Dutch teachers.

Factors associated with problem behaviors in Turkish immigrant children in The Netherlands.

The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between child, parent, family/support, and stress variables and problem behaviors in Turkish immigrant children in the Netherlands. Parents of 833 children were interviewed and administered a Turkish version of the Child Behavior Checklist for ages 4 through 18 and a Turkish immigrant assessment questionnaire. Increased integration (i.e., children belonging to a second generation of immigrants, older children) generally reduced the risk for problem behaviors, while frequent arguments, divorce, psychological problems, and convictions/incarcerations increased the risk for problem behaviors. Results indicate that problem behaviors are associated with the high level of separation faced by Turkish immigrant families and that more integration leads to lower levels of problem behavior. Additionally, migration history alone does not contribute to problem behavior. Factors in the family (e.g., quarrels, divorce, conviction) associated with problem behaviors in Turkish immigrants are similar to those found in Dutch and American populations. Future studies could examine predictors of problem behaviors in other culturally separated immigrant groups in the Netherlands, and in Turkish immigrant groups in other countries.

Bilingual Vocabulary Development of Turkish Preschoolers in the Netherlands

In a small-scale longitudinal study, the development of receptive and productive Dutch and Turkish vocabulary of 31 Turkish immigrant preschool children from age three to four was assessed and compared with Dutch vocabulary development of 77 same-age Dutch children. Using multivariate analysis of variance for repeated measurements, main and interaction effects of group (Turkish, Dutch working class and Dutch middle class) and time were tested. Turkish preschoolers' development of Turkish vocabulary appeared to be rather similar to Dutch lower-class children's Dutch vocabulary development. However, Turkish preschoolers' Dutch vocabulary development was further behind. Significant interaction effects of group and age furthermore indicated that the acceleration of Dutch vocabulary growth in Turkish children, due to increased use of day-care and preschool centres and, from the fourth birthday onward, introduction into kindergarten, wasnot paralleled by a similar acceleration of Turkish vocabulary growth. A correlational analysis with home characteristics provided further clues as to the possible determinants of Dutch and Turkish language development of the Turkish preschoolers in this study. The results are interpreted within the framework of Cummins' interdependency hypothesis.

The Language Proficiency of Turkish Returnees from Germany: An Empirical Investigation of Academic and Everyday Language Proficiency

This study analyses the everyday and academic language proficiency of German-Turkish bilinguals who grew up in Germany as children of Turkish immigrants and learned German as a second language. They attended German schools before returning to Turkey, where German formed part of the school curriculum. The bilinguals of our sample were all univeristy students of German philology. Although the returnees' command of German seemed to be native-like at a surface level, their teachers and lecturers frequently complained about their academic language proficiency. Therefore, their everyday and their academic language proficiency was measured with two different C-tests, developed on the basis of Cummins' distinction between basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and cognitive-academic language proficiency (CALP). The scores obtained were compared with those of a control group of Turkish university students who had spent their childhood in Turkey and learned German at school. Statistical analysis of the data yielded the following results: (1) the C-tests were a useful means of measuring different aspects of language proficiency; (2) the returnees showed significantly higher scores for everyday language proficiency in German compared to the control group; (3) the main predictor variables were school type and length of time spent at a German school; and (4) attrition of everyday language proficiency in German depended on the length of time since return to Turkey.

Understanding childhood (problem) behaviors from a cultural perspective: comparison of problem behaviors and competencies in Turkish immigrant, Turkish and Dutch children.

Parents' reports of problem behaviors in 2,081 Dutch children, 3,127 Turkish children in Ankara and 833 Turkish immigrant children living in The Netherlands, aged 4-18 years, were compared. Dutch and Turkish versions of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) were used. Immigrant children were scored higher than Dutch children on 6 of the 11 CBCL scales, most markedly on the Anxious/Depressed scale. Immigrant children were scored higher than Ankara children on five CBCL scales. However, these differences were much smaller than those found between immigrant and Dutch children. Furthermore, immigrant children's Total Problem scores did not differ from those for Ankara children. Turkish immigrant children have very similar patterns of parent-reported problem behaviors to children living in Turkey, although both groups of Turkish children showed higher levels of parent-reported problem behaviors than Dutch children. The higher scores for Turkish children on the Anxious/Depressed scale compared with their Dutch peers may be explained by cultural differences in parental perception of children's problem behaviors, as well as the threshold for reporting them, or by cultural differences in the prevalence of problems, for instance as the result of cross-cultural differences in child-rearing practice. More research is needed to test the degree to which Turkish immigrant parents tend to preserve their cultural characteristics and child-rearing practices in Dutch society.