Intelligence Quotient Of Children Research Articles

Bullying victimization in adolescence and psychotic symptomatology in adulthood: evidence from a 35-year study.

There has been considerable recent interest in possible causal linkages between exposure to bullying victimization and later psychotic symptomatology. Prior research in this area has had several limitations which make it difficult to ascertain causality, and to determine the extent to which these effects extend beyond adolescence. Data were obtained from the Christchurch Health and Development Study, a 35-year study of a longitudinal birth cohort. This investigation used generalized estimating equation modelling to estimate the associations between bullying victimization (ages 13-16 years) and psychotic symptoms (ages 18-35 years), before and after controlling for possible confounding factors, including: gender; childhood socio-economic status; child intelligence quotient; exposure to sexual abuse in childhood; anxious/withdrawn behaviour and attention problems (ages 7-9 years); and adolescent psychotic symptoms and paranoid ideation (ages 15-16 years). There was a significant (p < 0.0001) bivariate association between bullying victimization in adolescence and psychotic symptomatology in adulthood. Successive models controlling for covariation reduced this association to statistical non-significance. After controlling for covariates, those with the highest level of bullying victimization had rates of psychotic symptoms that were 1.21 (95% confidence interval 0.73-1.99) times higher than those who were not victimized. The association between bullying victimization in adolescence and psychotic symptomatology in adulthood could be largely explained by childhood behavioural problems, and exposure to sexual abuse in childhood. The results suggest that bullying victimization was unlikely to have been a cause of adult psychotic symptoms, but bullying victimization remained a risk marker for these symptoms.

Suboptimal Performance in Cleft Lip/Palate Children- Who is Responsible?

Information in this article is from an observational study comparing intelligence in children with cleft lip and palate with normal children. Both groups performed "draw a man test", the investigator noted the attitude and behaviour of children and their parents. The study shows low, but normal intelligence quotient in children with oral defects as compared to normal. The probable reason for sub-normal performance appeared to be overprotective attitude of parents and poor self esteem of children with oral defects.

Effect of environmental factors on intelligence quotient of children.

Introduction:A child's intelligence quotient (IQ) is determined by both genetic and environmental factors that start from the prenatal period itself. There is a lack of data on the factors which influence IQ in Indian children; therefore, we conducted a multicenter questionnaire-based study to determine the environmental factors which influence IQ in Indian children.Participants and Methods:In this cross-sectional observational study, we recruited 1065 schoolchildren between the age of 12 and 16 years from 2 government and 13 private schools in 5 towns, 6 cities, and 2 villages across India. All the children were administered a questionnaire consisting of various environmental factors such as parents' education, occupation, income, and the physical activity of the students. IQ scores were assessed using Ravens Standard Progressive Matrices. An approximate IQ score was calculated using the score on the Ravens test. IQ scores were divided into three groups: below normal IQ (0–79), normal IQ (80–119), and high IQ (above 120). The data were analyzed using SPSS software.Results:In this study, it was observed that the environmental factors such as place of residence, physical activity, family income, parental education, and occupation of the father had an impact on the IQ of the children. Children living in cities (P = 0.001), children having physical activity more than 5 h/weeks (P = 0.001), children with parents having a postgraduate or graduate level of education (P = 0.001), children whose father having a professional job (P = 0.001), and those with a higher family income (P = 0.001) were more likely to have high IQ.Conclusions:In the present study, we found that various environmental factors such as place of residence, physical exercise, family income, parents' occupation and education influence the IQ of a child to a great extent. Hence, a child must be provided with an optimal environment to be able to develop to his/her full genetic potential.

Effect of fluoridated water on intelligence in 10-12-year-old school children.

Aim:The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relationship of drinking water fluoride levels with children's intelligence quotient (IQ).Materials and Methods:Water was collected from initially identified endemic fluoride regions according to the geological research of Government of India. Fluoride concentration of the water was assessed by utilizing fluoride ion selective electrode, Orion 9609BN, and categorized on the basis of fluoride concentration into low, medium, and high-fluoride regions, i.e., Virajpet (low fluoride level < 1.2 ppm), Banavara (Medium fluoride level 1.2–2 ppm), and Mastihalli (High fluoride levels > 3 ppm). Government school from all three villages were selected randomly and IQ levels were assessed by using Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices. This test was conducted on each child in the study sample.Results:A significant inverse relationship was found between the fluoride concentration in drinking water and IQ (r value = −0.204; P < 0.000). It was observed that IQ level was negatively correlated with fluoride concentration in drinking water.Conclusion:It is concluded that IQ level was negatively correlated with fluoride level in drinking water. Factors that might affect children's IQ need to be considered, and it is necessary to devise solutions for preventing the harmful effects of excessive intake of fluoride ion to the body.

Effects of Maternal Iodine Nutrition and Thyroid Status on Cognitive Development in Offspring: A Pilot Study.

Maternal iodine nutrition and thyroid status may influence neurocognitive development in offspring. This study investigated the effects on the intelligence quotient (IQ) of children born to mothers with different levels of iodine supplementation, with or without the administration of levothyroxine (LT4), prior to and during pregnancy. This pilot, prospective, observational study included four study groups, each comprising 15 mother-child pairs, identified on the basis of maternal histories of iodized salt consumption and LT4 treatment prior to and during pregnancy. The groups were labeled as follows: iodine (I), no iodine (no-I), iodine + LT4 (I + T4), and no iodine + LT4 (no-I + T4). IQ tests were administered to children at 6-12 years of age with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-3rd Edition (WISC-III), with full-scale IQ (FSIQ), verbal IQ (VIQ), and performance IQ (PIQ) being evaluated. Children of I and I + T4 mothers had similar verbal, performance, and FSIQs, which were 14, 10, and 13 points higher, respectively, than children born to no-I and no-I + T4 mothers. A positive association was found between VIQ and maternal urinary iodine (β = 1.023 [confidence interval (CI) 1.003-1.043]; p = 0.028), but not with maternal free thyroxine concentrations at any stage of pregnancy. Overall, the prevalence of borderline or defective cognitive function was more than threefold higher in the children of mothers not using iodized salt than of those mothers using it (76.9% vs. 23.1%, odds ratio 7.667 [CI 2.365-24.856], χ2 = 12.65; p = 0.0001). Neuro-intellectual outcomes in children appear to be more dependent on their mothers' nutritional iodine status than on maternal thyroid function. These results support the growing body of evidence that prenatal, mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency adversely affects cognitive development later in life, with a seemingly greater impact on verbal abilities.

Maternal Caffeine Intake During Pregnancy and Child Cognition and Behavior at 4 and 7 Years of Age.

Although caffeine is commonly consumed during pregnancy, there are few reports on the association of in utero caffeine exposure with offspring cognition or behavior during childhood. We evaluated the association of maternal serum paraxanthine, caffeine's primary metabolite, at <20 and ≥26 weeks' gestation with the child's intelligence quotient (IQ) and problem behaviors at ages 4 and 7 years among 2,197 mother-child pairs. The mothers were controls from a case-control study of caffeine metabolites and spontaneous abortion that was nested within the Collaborative Perinatal Project (multiple US sites, 1959-1974). Associations of paraxanthine (adjusted for maternal age, race, education, smoking, prepregnancy weight, gestational age at blood draw, and child sex) with mean IQ were assessed by linear regression and associations with problem behaviors by logistic regression. Paraxanthine concentration at ≥26 weeks' gestation manifested an inverted-J-shaped association with child's IQ at age 7 years, with a peak difference (vs. undetectable) of 0.65 points at 750 µg/L (66th percentile) and a decrement thereafter. Paraxanthine at <20 weeks was linearly associated with internalizing behavior at age 4 years (for a 500-µg/L increase, odds ratio = 1.3, 95% confidence interval: 1.1, 1.5). None of the remaining 12 associations approached statistical significance. We conclude that over a range of values applicable to most pregnant women, there was no meaningful association of serum paraxanthine level with childhood IQ or problem behaviors.

Association of maternal thyroid function during early pregnancy with offspring IQ and brain morphology in childhood: a population-based prospective cohort study

Thyroid hormone is involved in the regulation of early brain development. Since the fetal thyroid gland is not fully functional until week 18-20 of pregnancy, neuronal migration and other crucial early stages of intrauterine brain development largely depend on the supply of maternal thyroid hormone. Current clinical practice mostly focuses on preventing the negative consequences of low thyroid hormone concentrations, but data from animal studies have shown that both low and high concentrations of thyroid hormone have negative effects on offspring brain development. We aimed to investigate the association of maternal thyroid function with child intelligence quotient (IQ) and brain morphology. In this population-based prospective cohort study, embedded within the Generation R Study (Rotterdam, Netherlands), we investigated the association of maternal thyroid function with child IQ (assessed by non-verbal intelligence tests) and brain morphology (assessed on brain MRI scans). Eligible women were those living in the study area at their delivery date, which had to be between April 1, 2002, and Jan 1, 2006. For this study, women with available serum samples who presented in early pregnancy (<18 weeks) were included. Data for maternal thyroid-stimulating hormone, free thyroxine, thyroid peroxidase antibodies (at weeks 9-18 of pregnancy), and child IQ (assessed at a median of 6·0 years of age [95% range 5·6-7·9 years]) or brain MRI scans (done at a median of 8·0 years of age [6·2-10·0]) were obtained. Analyses were adjusted for potential confounders including concentrations of human chorionic gonadotropin and child thyroid-stimulating hormone and free thyroxine. Data for child IQ were available for 3839 mother-child pairs, and MRI scans were available from 646 children. Maternal free thyroxine concentrations showed an inverted U-shaped association with child IQ (p=0·0044), child grey matter volume (p=0·0062), and cortex volume (p=0·0011). For both low and high maternal free thyroxine concentrations, this association corresponded to a 1·4-3·8 points reduction in mean child IQ. Maternal thyroid-stimulating hormone was not associated with child IQ or brain morphology. All associations remained similar after the exclusion of women with overt hypothyroidism and overt hyperthyroidism, and after adjustment for concentrations of human chorionic gonadotropin, child thyroid-stimulating hormone and free thyroxine or thyroid peroxidase antibodies (continuous or positivity). Both low and high maternal free thyroxine concentrations during pregnancy were associated with lower child IQ and lower grey matter and cortex volume. The association between high maternal free thyroxine and low child IQ suggests that levothyroxine therapy during pregnancy, which is often initiated in women with subclinical hypothyroidism during pregnancy, might carry the potential risk of adverse child neurodevelopment outcomes when the aim of treatment is to achieve high-normal thyroid function test results. The Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) and the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme.

A Comparison of Intelligence Quotient in Children with and without β-Thalassemia Major

Background: Thalassemia is the most common hemoglobinopathy worldwide. Children with β-thalassemia major have several risk factors for cognitive problems. The aim of this study is to evaluate intelligence quotient in children with β-thalassemia major and healthy counterparts using Wechsler Intelligence Scale. Materials and Methods: Within a case-control design and using convenience sampling method, the present study was carried out in Zahedan and Shiraz in 2012. Participants were matched based on their age, gender and city of residence (40 children with β-thalassemia major and 40 healthy children aging 6 to 12 years. Wechsler Intelligence Scale Revised (WISC-R) was used to find the participants’ Verbal Performance and Full intelligence scores. The scores of the two groups were then compared using descriptive analysis and independent t-test. Results: As compared with their healthy counterparts, children with β-thalassemia major had lower scores on both Verbal Scale and Full Scale (P&lt;0.01); however, the difference between the two groups’ scores on Performance Scale fell short of significance. Conclusions: Intelligence decline does not necessarily occur in children with β-thalassemia. They are just slightly lower than their healthy counterarts and they need to receive more attention in education in order to improve. [GMJ.2015;4(4):130-31]

Can PEP-3 Provide a Cognitive Profile in Children with ASD? A Comparison Between the Developmental Ages of PEP-3 and IQ of Leiter-R.

The assessment of the intelligence quotient (IQ) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is important to plan a detailed therapeutic-educative programme. The aim of the study was to evaluate the usefulness of the Psychoeducational Profile-third edition (PEP-3) to estimate the general cognitive development of children with ASD. We recruited 30 children with ASD assessed with the Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised (Leiter-R) and the PEP-3. We compared the IQ of the Leiter-R with the developmental level (DL) of PEP-3. The findings showed a significant positive correlation between IQ with DL of the cognitive verbal/pre-verbal (P=0.0005), DL of the area of expressive language (P=0.0004), DL of the area of receptive language (P=0.0001), DL of fine motor (P=0.0066), DL of gross motor (P=0.0217), DL of visuo-motor imitation (P=0.02), DL of communication (P=0.0001) and DL of motor (P=0.0063). These findings show that the DLs could be considered as indicators of cognitive functioning in ASD.

Prenatal DDT and DDE exposure and child IQ in the CHAMACOS cohort

Although banned in most countries, dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) continues to be used for vector control in some malaria endemic areas. Previous findings from the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) cohort study found increased prenatal levels of DDT and its breakdown product dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethylene (DDE) to be associated with altered neurodevelopment in children at 1 and 2years of age. In this study, we combined the measured maternal DDT/E concentrations during pregnancy obtained for the prospective birth cohort with predicted prenatal DDT and DDE levels estimated for a retrospective birth cohort. Using generalized estimating equation (GEE) and linear regression models, we evaluated the relationship of prenatal maternal DDT and DDE serum concentrations with children's cognition at ages 7 and 10.5years as assessed using the Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and 4 subtest scores (Working Memory, Perceptual Reasoning, Verbal Comprehension, and Processing Speed) of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). In GEE analyses incorporating both age 7 and 10.5 scores (n=619), we found prenatal DDT and DDE levels were not associated with Full Scale IQ or any of the WISC subscales (p-value>0.05). In linear regression analyses assessing each time point separately, prenatal DDT levels were inversely associated with Processing Speed at age 7years (n=316), but prenatal DDT and DDE levels were not associated with Full Scale IQ or any of the WISC subscales at age 10.5years (n=595). We found evidence for effect modification by sex. In girls, but not boys, prenatal DDE levels were inversely associated with Full Scale IQ and Processing Speed at age 7years. We conclude that prenatal DDT levels may be associated with delayed Processing Speed in children at age 7years and the relationship between prenatal DDE levels and children's cognitive development may be modified by sex, with girls being more adversely affected.

Are children born through Intra-Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) having a lower intelligence quotient?

Abstract Background: There is still concern about delayed mental development for children born through Intra-Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI). In the present study, the intelligence quotient (IQ) of ICSI children at the age of 5–6 years was compared with that of the control group of naturally born (NB) children. Outcome measure: Full-scale IQ of the mental development in children born through ICSI in 5–6 years. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Fatemehzahra Infertility and Reproductive Health Research Center of Babol – Iran. Participants: 28 live-birth singleton children 5–6 years of the first generation born after ICSI treatment. Methods: The mental development of 28 born through ICSI children at 5–6 years compared with 32 naturally born children as control using intelligence quotient (IQ) test obtained from the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) (Iranian version). Results: The mean full-scale IQ was 105.9 ± 14 for ICSI and 107.2 ± 12.9 for NB children which showed no significant difference. The only significant possible predictors of slightly lower full-scale IQ in ICSI children were lower parental education level and longer childcare in day center. Conclusion: Our finding provides some reassurance for parents of children born through ICSI regarding the child’s preschool IQ.

Relation of intelligence quotient and body mass index in preschool children: a community-based cross-sectional study.

Objective:Overweight and obesity in children is a global problem. Besides physical effects, obesity has harmful psychological effects on children.Methods:We carried out cross-sectional community-based study to investigate the relation between body mass index (BMI) and cognitive functioning in preschool children. Thirteen socioeconomical elements of 1151 children were measured and analyzed based on their intelligence quotient (IQ) test results. Thirteen out of 33 provinces were selected randomly, and schools were selected as clusters in rural and urban areas. Descriptive statistics, t-test, analysis of variance and regression were used when appropriate.Results:Our analysis showed that IQ was associated with household income, place of residence, delivery type, type of infant feeding and father's and mother's education level (P<0.001 for all). Using penalized linear regression for eliminating the impact of confounding factor, our study shows that, living in metropolitan (β=2.411) and urban areas (β=2.761), the level of participants' father's education (β=5.251) was positively and BMI (β=−0.594) was negatively related with IQ test results.ConclusionsThe findings of the present study showed that a lower IQ score is associated with higher BMI. However, this relation appears to be largely mediated when the socioeconomic status was considered.

Self and informant reports of mental health difficulties among adults with autism findings from a long-term follow-up study.

Data on psychiatric problems in adults with autism are inconsistent, with estimated rates ranging from around 25% to over 75%. We assessed difficulties related to mental health in 58 adults with autism (10 females, 48 males; mean age 44 years) whom we have followed over four decades. All were of average non-verbal intelligence quotient when diagnosed as children. Overall ratings of mental health problems were based on data from the Family History Schedule (Bolton et al., 1994). Informant reports indicated that many of the cohort (44%) had experienced no mental health problems in adulthood; 28% had experienced mild to moderate difficulties, 23% had severe and 5% very severe problems. Depression was the most commonly reported problem. Among those adults (n = 22) able to report on their own mental state, again many (45%) reported no mental health problems, although 27% reported very severe mental health problems related to anxiety, depression and/or obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Informant ratings of poor mental health were not associated with gender, severity of autism in childhood, or child or adult intelligence quotient, but there were small correlations with overall social functioning (rho = 0.34) and current autism severity (rho = 0.37). The findings highlight the difficulties of assessing mental health problems in adults with autism and the need for appropriately validated measures.

Smoking and alcohol drinking during pregnancy as the risk factors for poor child neurodevelopment - A review of epidemiological studies.

Maternal active and passive smoking and low or moderate alcohol drinking during pregnancy, taking into account the level of exposure and developmental or behavioral outcomes, are recognized as a significant issue from both a clinical and a public health perspective. The article aims at evaluating the impact of prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke constituents and low or moderate alcohol drinking during pregnancy on children neurodevelopment by reviewing the most recently published literature. Relevant studies were identified by searching the Pubmed, Medline and Ebsco literature databases. This review is restricted to 29 human studies published in English in peer reviewed journals since 2006. The studies published recently continued to show some relationship between tobacco smoke exposure, from active and passive maternal smoking during pregnancy, and children's psychomotor development independent of other variables, but this relationship is not straightforward. The association is mostly consistent for measures of academic achievements and behavioral problems which require further attention. The results of the studies on low or moderate exposure to alcohol are not fully conclusive, but some of them suggest that consumption of alcohol during pregnancy may adversely affect children's intelligence quotient (IQ), mental health, memory and verbal or visual performance. As the reviewed studies indicate, maternal lifestyle during pregnancy like alcohol drinking or smoking may affect children neurodevelopment. All effort should be taken to eliminate such exposure to ensure appropriate children's development.

Normal intellectual development in children born from women with hypothyroxinemia during their pregnancy

Proper maternal thyroid function is known to be essential for neural differentiation and migration in the fetus during the first half of pregnancy. The objectives of this study were to assess the relationship between thyroxin levels, in pregnant women with no thyroid disease and the intellectual development of their offspring in a non-iodine-deficient area, and to know specifically whether or not isolated hypothyroxinemia during pregnancy was associated with a lower intelligence in the offspring.Previously we had publicated values TSH, FT4, free T3 (FT3), anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies (TPO Abs) and urinary iodine concentration (UIC) in 1322 pregnant women in our hospital area. Now we presented results of intelligence quotient in children born from these pregnancies. We assessed 455 children at one year of age using Brunet-Lezine scale. Of these, 289 children were evaluated again at 6–8 years of age using the WISC-IV. From the total group of children recruited, we established as control subgroup, children born of rigorously normal pregnancies (women with UIC>150μg/L, FT4>10th percentile and TPO-Ab negative in both trimesters). The remaining children were divided into two subgroups: those born to mothers with FT4 below the 10th percentile and the rest. No correlation was found between FT4 maternal levels, in either of trimesters studied, and the intellectual scores of offspring. No differences were found in intellectual scores comparing children born to mothers with hypothyroxinemia and those whose mothers were euthyroxinemic in both trimesters, or with the control subgroup.As conclusions we did not find any association between the levels of maternal FT4 during pregnancy and the subsequent intellectual development the offspring from these pregnancies. We attribute this result to the fact that all the pregnant women included had normal thyroid function.

Parental education predicts change in intelligence quotient after childhood epilepsy surgery.

To know whether change in the intelligence quotient (IQ) of children who undergo epilepsy surgery is associated with the educational level of their parents. Retrospective analysis of data obtained from a cohort of children who underwent epilepsy surgery between January 1996 and September 2010. We performed simple and multiple regression analyses to identify predictors associated with IQ change after surgery. In addition to parental education, six variables previously demonstrated to be associated with IQ change after surgery were included as predictors: age at surgery, duration of epilepsy, etiology, presurgical IQ, reduction of antiepileptic drugs, and seizure freedom. We used delta IQ (IQ 2 years after surgery minus IQ shortly before surgery) as the primary outcome variable, but also performed analyses with pre- and postsurgical IQ as outcome variables to support our findings. To validate the results we performed simple regression analysis with parental education as the predictor in specific subgroups. The sample for regression analysis included 118 children (60 male; median age at surgery 9.73 years). Parental education was significantly associated with delta IQ in simple regression analysis (p = 0.004), and also contributed significantly to postsurgical IQ in multiple regression analysis (p = 0.008). Additional analyses demonstrated that parental education made a unique contribution to prediction of delta IQ, that is, it could not be replaced by the illness-related variables. Subgroup analyses confirmed the association of parental education with IQ change after surgery for most groups. Children whose parents had higher education demonstrate on average a greater increase in IQ after surgery and a higher postsurgical--but not presurgical--IQ than children whose parents completed at most lower secondary education. Parental education--and perhaps other environmental variables--should be considered in the prognosis of cognitive function after childhood epilepsy surgery.

Inverse association between intelligence quotient and urinary retinol binding protein in Chinese school-age children with low blood lead levels: Results from a cross-sectional investigation

Objectives: Examine the relationship between blood lead concentration and children’s intelligence quotient (IQ) in Chinese children 8–12years old. Participants and methods: This is a cross-sectional study, and participants included 446 children from three primary schools in Jiangsu, China. We collected environmental and genetic information from questionnaires. Blood lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd) and selenium (Se) concentrations were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). IQ was assessed using the Combined Raven’s Test and then converted to a standard IQ score according to Chinese children’s norm. Morning urine samples were collected to measure retinol binding protein (RBP). Results: The average blood lead concentration was 33.13μgL−1 (geometric mean), and the blood lead concentration (BoxCox transform) was inversely and significantly associated with IQ (r=−0.11, p=0.02). The geometric mean of blood Mn, Cd and Se was 7.02μgL−1, 0.18μgL−1 and 94.77μgL−1, respectively. Blood Mn, Cd and Se showed no association with IQ, but all of them associated with urinary RBP. Urinary RBP was identified as a new factor associated with IQ (β=−6.49, p=0.011). Conclusions: Urinary RBP was recognized as a new indicated factor associated with children’s IQ. Mn, Cd and Se exposure might affect urinary RBP concentration and further IQ. Findings also support that blood lead concentrations in 8–12years old children, even <44μgL−1, have a negative association with IQ.

The importance of iodine in public health.

Iodine (I) deficiency has been known for more than a century and is known to cause cretinism at the extreme end of the spectrum but also, importantly, impaired development and neurocognition in areas of mild deficiency. The WHO has indicated that median urinary iodine of 100-199 μg/l in a population is regarded as indicative of an adequate iodine intake. The understanding of the spectrum of iodine deficiency disorders led to the formation of The International Council for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders which has promulgated the use of household iodized salt and the use of such salt in food processing and manufacture. Iodine deficiency is particularly important in pregnancy as the fetus relies on maternal thyroxine (T4) exclusively during the first 14 weeks and also throughout gestation. As this hormone is critical to brain and nervous system maturation, low maternal T4 results in low child intelligence quotient. The recommendation for I intake in pregnancy is 250 μg/day to prevent fetal and child brain function impairment. During the past 25 years, the number of countries with I deficiency has reduced to 32; these still include many European developed countries. Sustainability of adequate iodine status must be achieved by continuous monitoring and where this has not been performed I deficiency has often recurred. More randomized controlled trials of iodine supplementation in pregnancy are required in mild iodine-deficient areas to inform public health strategy and subsequent government action on suitable provision of iodine to the population at risk.

Effect of fluoride in drinking water on children′s intelligence in high and low fluoride areas of Delhi

Introduction: Fluoride is one of the indispensable elements for the living being. However, the intake of F above the threshold level can affect the central nervous system even before causing dental or skeletal fluorosis. Aim: The aim was to assess the effect of fluoride in drinking water on the intelligence quotient (IQ) of 8-12 years old school going children residing in high and low Fluoride (F) areas of Delhi. Materials and Methods: A total of 200 school children were selected, 100 from low F area and 100 from high F area. The IQ of the children was assessed using Ravens Standardized Progressive Matrices Test. Information for each child's sociodemographic data, mother's diet during pregnancy, duration of residency in the village, source of drinking water, and duration of drinking water from the source was entered on a specially designed proforma from mothers of children. Height and weight were also recorded for each child to assess the nutritional status. Independent t-test and Chi-square test was used to compare mean IQ scores in high and low fluoridated areas. Pearson's correlation and multivariate linear regression were used to appraise the issue of all the study variables on IQ. Results: Comparison of mean IQ of children in both high (76.20 ± 19.10) and low F (85.80 ± 18.85) areas showed a significant difference (P = 0.013). Multiple regression analysis between child IQ and all other independent variables revealed that mother's diet during pregnancy (P = 0.001) along with F in drinking water (P = 0.017) were the independent variables with the greatest explanatory power for child IQ variance (r2 = 0.417) without interaction with other variables. Conclusion: Fluoride in the drinking water was significantly related with the IQ of children. Along with fluoride, mother's diet during pregnancy was also found to be significantly related with IQ of children. Researches in the same field are further advocated with large sample size and over a large geographical area.

Urinary iodine levels, goiter rates and intelligence quotient in primary school children in Giwa Local Government area of Kaduna State, Nigeria

Background: Iodine deficiency can cause brain damage and/or cognitive impairment in children. It is preventable and of public health concern. After sixteen years of universal salt iodization in Nigeria, we undertook this study in north-western Nigeria to determine: prevalence of iodine deficiency in school children, any relationship between iodine deficiency, goiter and intelligence quotient and iodine content of table salt from their households. Methodology: A cross-sectional study of school children aged 6-12 years. Data was collected using structured questionnaire. Enrolled children had physical examination and anthropometric measurements. Presence of goiter was clinically assessed using criteria jointly recommended by WHO, UNICEF and ICCIDD. Intelligence quotient was assessed using the Draw-A-Man test. Specimen of urine was obtained from each child and table salt specimen from their homes. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry was used to analyze urinary iodine in μg/L. Iodine content of salt was semi-quantitatively analyzed. Results: A total of 544 children were studied. Their mean age (±1SD) was 9.5 ± 2.0 years. Median urinary iodine excretion (UIE) level was 148 μg/L. Forty-seven (8.6%) children had goiter. Three hundred and seventy- six (69.1%) children had normal body build. Of 118 (21.7%) children with adequate iodine status, 18 (15.3%) were stunted; a similar proportion in iodine deficient children. One hundred and thirty-four (57.0%) of 235 iodine-deficient children and 67 (56.8%) of 118 iodine-sufficient children had normal Intelligence Quotient. All household table salts contained iodine. Conclusion: There was no relationship between nutritional status and Iodine status; iodine status and intelligence quotient in study children.