Adolescent Depression Research Articles

Assessing Psychological Disorders in Turkish Adolescents with Transfusion-Dependent Thalassemia.

We investigated depression and anxiety levels and related psychological disorders in adolescents with transfusion-dependent thalassemia (TDT) in this study. The study was conducted in two pediatric hematology outpatient clinics and included adolescents with TDT (14.8 ± 2.4 years, n = 40) in the study and compared them with the healthy age-matched control group (14.3 ± 2.3 years, n = 62). The Turkish version of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS) was used to determine depression, anxiety, and related psychologic disorders (obsession, panic disorder, social phobia). Depression, anxiety, obsession, panic disorder, and social phobia scores were significantly higher in the patient group compared with the control (all p < 0.05). Ferritin levels were positively correlated with total depression, general anxiety, separation anxiety, and social phobia scores, but transfusion frequency and young age were the confounding factors. Patients in early adolescence and those who require more frequent blood transfusions are at higher risk of developing psychological disorders; routine screening for mood disorders should be warranted. Serum ferritin level may be a good warning indicator for early recognition of psychologic disorders in TDT patients.

Early adversity and prosocial behavior in adolescents from Bogotá: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundThe association between Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), prosocial behavior, and depression (like other negative mental health outcomes) has not been thoroughly understood. This study aimed at evaluating their simultaneous association while controlling for key confounding variables.MethodsA cross-sectional study was carried-out with 2918 secondary school students from seven charter schools located in low-resourced neighborhoods in Bogota (Colombia), 54.12% were female, and mean age was 13.81 years. The self-report instrument included demographic variables, well-being, mental health, risk behaviors and symptoms of psychopathology. Assessment of ACEs was done by a series of yes/no questions, prosocial behavior was evaluated with the corresponding subscale in the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and depression was assessed with the Self-Reporting Questionnaire. Associations were tested using the Spearman correlation coefficient, Z tests and Chi-square tests, and all primary outcome analyses were adjusted for potential confounding variables through multivariate logistic regression using depression as outcome.ResultsMean exposure to ACEs was 3.15 events; those exposed to four or more obtained lower scores in well-being, satisfaction with life and family functioning, and higher scores in symptoms of psychopathology. For the prosocial behavior scores, 64.35% were classified as close to the average, 17.51% as slightly lowered, 11.91% as low, and 6.23% as very low; participants with higher levels of prosocial behavior showed lower scores in symptoms of psychopathology. While ACEs had a positive association with depressive symptoms (Odds Ratio [OR] 2.21, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.67–2.94), prosocial behavior did not have a significant association with either ACEs or depressive symptoms in multivariate regression models.ConclusionsNovel studies should further elucidate the developmental pathways involving positive and negative mental health constructs to better understand the actual effectiveness of interventions that use these constructs in their design.

Self-compassion and psychological mindedness in depressed Turkish adolescents with non-suicidal self-injury

ABSTRACT Objective Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a significant mental health issue among depressed adolescents. This study aimed to investigate roles of psychological mindedness (PM) and self-compassion among depressed Turkish adolescents with NSSI. The mediating roles of PM and self-compassion between depression severity and NSSI were evaluated. Method 119 depressed adolescents evaluated at a child psychiatry outpatient clinic in Turkey were categorised based on NSSI experience. Self-compassion and psychological mindedness scales (covering psychological interest, insight, help-seeking, and capacity for change subscales) were measured. Results PM and self-compassion scores were lower in depressed adolescents with NSSI than adolescents without NSSI. Psychological interest (Odds Ratio (OR): 0.886, Confidence Interval (CI): 0.788–0.996), capacity for change (OR: 0.902, CI: 0.815–0.998), and self-compassion (OR: 0.937, CI: 0.879–0.999) emerged as protective factors against NSSI. Also, significant indirect effects of PM and self-compassion were observed between depression severity and NSSI. Seeking psychological help related to both intrapersonal and interpersonal functions, whereas psychological interest specifically related to interpersonal functions. Conclusions PM and self-compassion appear as protective factors, with certain PM components linked to intrapersonal and interpersonal functions of NSSI. Thus, integrating interventions to boost PM and self-compassion into depression treatment strategies could be crucial.

Neural Circuit Mechanisms of Sinisan formula for the Treatment of adolescent Depression: prefrontal cortex to dorsal raphe nucleus

Ethnopharmacological relevanceSinisan formula (SNSF), documented in the classic books Shanghan Lun, is known for its ability to regulate liver-qi and treat depression. However, its underlying mechanism, particularly its effects on dynamic real-time neuron activity and circuits remains to be fully elucidated. Aim of the studyThis study aimed to investigate the antidepressant effect of SNSF and its central nervous system mechanism on depression-like behaviors, focusing on the prefrontal cortex (PFC) to dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) neural circuit in a stress-induced adolescent animal model. Materials and methodsSNSF comprised four herbs, the root of Bupleurum chinense DC., the root of Paeonia lactiflora Pall., the fruit of Citrus aurantium L., the rhizome of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., in equal propotions. The adolescent depression animal model was induced by maternal separation (MS) and chronic restraint stress (CRS). In-vivo multichannel physiological electrodes were implanted into the PFC on PND 28 and animals were recorded 5 times during PND 35–46. From PND 47, the behavioral tests were performed to evaluate the antidepressant efficacy of SNSF. Subsequently, brain tissue was collected for Western blot and immunofluorescence staining analysis. Retro virus was injected into the DRN to explore sources of projections received by serotonergic (5-HTergic) neurons. And the PFC-to-DRN circuit was activated or inhibited through chemogenetic techniques to investigate the effects of SNSF on depression-like behaviors. ResultsAdministration of SNSF for 18 days effectively alleviated depression-like behaviors in MS&CRS adolescent mice. The PFC emerged as the primary glutamatergic projection source of the DRN5−HT neurons. Following SNSF administration for 13/15/18 days, there was an increase in the firing rate of excitatory neurons and excitatory/inhibitory (E/I) ratio in the PFC. MS&CRS stress let to a reduction in the density of 5-HT+ and CaMKII + neurons in the DRN, accompanied by an increase in the density of GAD + neurons in the DRN, while SNSF administration reversed the alterations. Chemogenetic activation of the PFC-to-DRN circuit rescued the depression-like behaviors induced by MS&CRS, whereas suppression of this circuit attenuated the antidepressant effect of SNSF. ConclusionsSNSF significantly mitigated depression-like behaviors in MS&CRS mice. SNSF exerts its antidepressant effects by increasing the E/I ratio in the PFC and enhancing glutamatergic projections from the PFC to the DRN.

Maternal victimization and neglected offspring: Child marriage, IPV and depression symptoms among Salar Muslim women

BackgroundChild neglect is prevalent in western rural China, yet there is limited research among ethnic minority communities. The Salar, a Turkic-Muslim ethnic minority residing primarily in western China, also face this specific problem. The group is deeply influenced by ethnicity, Islam and Chinese Confucianism, which in turn makes women vulnerable to child marriage and IPV. These victimizations, coupled with various life stressors, further complicate the challenges of providing adequate care for their children. ObjectiveThis study hypothesizes a relationship between child neglect and maternal child marriage, IPV victimization, and depression symptoms. Participants and setting201 married Salar women from five villages in Xunhua Salar Autonomous County, China, were randomly selected to participate in the study. MethodA probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling approach was used to collect a random representative multi-stage cluster sample in 2022. Random effects Poisson regression models were used to test the hypotheses. ResultsThe participants reported a 65.6 % rate of child neglect and a 30.8 % rate of IPV in the past year. 37.6 % experienced child marriage. Results revealed significant associations between child neglect and child marriage, IPV, and depression symptoms. A two-way interaction between IPV and depression symptoms was strongly positively associated with child neglect. ConclusionsThis research indicates that Salar Muslim mothers who have experienced child marriage, adulthood victimization, and depression are at a higher risk of neglecting their children. The findings represent a valuable initial step toward researching and addressing the protection needs of women and children from Muslim ethnic minorities in China.

Psychometric validation of the Montgomery–åsberg Depression Rating Scale – Youth (MADRS-Y) in a clinical sample

Background Depression in adolescence is a serious major global health problem with increasing rates of prevalence. Measures of depression that are valid for young people are clearly needed in clinical contexts. Methods The study included 577 patients from child and adolescent psychiatry (n = 471) and primary care (n = 106) aged 12–22 years in Sweden (Mage=16.7 years; 76% female). The reliability and validity for Montgomery–Åsberg Depression Rating Scale – Youth (MADRS-Y) were investigated. To confirm the latent structure, we used a single-factor confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). A Kruskal–Wallis test was performed to test total score differences between diagnostic groups. Using Spearman’s rho correlations, we examine whether single items in the MADRS-Y correlate with suicidal ideation measured by The Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire-JR (SIQ-JR). Results The internal consistency using McDonald’s coefficient omega was excellent. The CFA of the 12-item MADRS-Y supported a one factor structure. Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity was shown. There was a significant difference in MADRS-Y scores across diagnostic groups, with higher results for depressive disorders. A strong correlation with suicidal ideation was found for two items. Conclusions The results support MADRS-Y as a brief, reliable, and valid self-report questionnaire of depressive symptoms for young patients in a clinical setting.

Dynamic functional connectivity correlates of trait mindfulness in early adolescence.

Trait mindfulness, the tendency to attend to present-moment experiences without judgement, is negatively correlated with adolescent anxiety and depression. Understanding the neural mechanisms underlying trait mindfulness may inform the neural basis of psychiatric disorders. However, few studies have identified brain connectivity states that correlate with trait mindfulness in adolescence, nor have they assessed the reliability of such states. To address this gap in knowledge, we rigorously assessed the reliability of brain states across 2 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan from 106 adolescents aged 12 to 15 (50% female). We performed both static and dynamic functional connectivity analyses and evaluated the test-retest reliability of how much time adolescents spent in each state. For the reliable states, we assessed associations with self-reported trait mindfulness. Higher trait mindfulness correlated with lower anxiety and depression symptoms. Static functional connectivity (ICCs from 0.31-0.53) was unrelated to trait mindfulness. Among the dynamic brains states we identified, most were unreliable within individuals across scans. However, one state, an hyperconnected state of elevated positive connectivity between networks, showed good reliability (ICC=0.65). We found that the amount of time that adolescents spent in this hyperconnected state positively correlated with trait mindfulness. By applying dynamic functional connectivity analysis on over 100 resting-state fMRI scans, we identified a highly reliable brain state that correlated with trait mindfulness. The brain state may reflect a state of mindfulness, or awareness and arousal more generally, which may be more pronounced in those who are higher in trait mindfulness.

Adversity and error-monitoring: Effects of emotional context.

This study tested whether self-reports of childhood adversity would predict altered error processing under emotional versus non-emotional task conditions. N = 99 undergraduates completed two selective attention tasks, a traditional color-word Stroop task and a modified task using emotional words, while EEG was recorded. Participants also completed self-report measures of adverse and positive childhood experiences, executive functioning, depression, current stress, and emotion regulation. Reports of adversity were robustly correlated with self-reported challenges in executive functioning, even when controlling for self-reported depression and stress, but adversity was not correlated with task performance. With regard to neural markers of error processing, adversity predicted an enhanced error-related negativity and blunted error-positivity, but only during the emotion-word blocks of the task. Moreover, error-related changes in alpha oscillations were predicted by adversity, in a pattern that suggested less error responsiveness in alpha patterns during the emotion block, compared to the color block, among participants with higher adversity. Overall, results indicate alterations in error monitoring associated with adversity, such that in an emotional context, initial error detection is enhanced and sustained error processing is blunted, even in the absence of overt performance changes.

'Who will I become?': possible selves and depression symptoms in adolescents.

Adolescence is an important period for the development of the possible self. It is also a time when depression is prevalent. The cognitive theory of depression proposes that a negative view of the future is a key feature of depression. Targeting these negative thoughts about the future during cognitive behavioural therapy may be helpful in depression. However, little is known about how adolescents envisage their future (i.e. possible) self, or if the content is associated with affect. The aim of this quantitative study is to describe how adolescents describe their 'possible self' and examine the relationship between the valence of the possible self and depression in adolescents. Adolescents (n = 584) aged 13-18 years were recruited via opportunity sampling via their schools and completed measures of depression symptoms (the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire) and the 'possible self' (a variant of the 'I Will Be' task). Possible selves were coded for content and valence. Despite depression severity, the most common possible selves generated by adolescents were positive and described interpersonal roles. The valence of the possible self was associated with depression severity but only accounted for 3.4% of the variance in severity. The results support the cognitive model of depression. However, adolescents with elevated symptoms of depression were able to generate positive, possible selves and therefore may remain somewhat 'hopeful' about their future despite clinically significant depression symptoms. Future-oriented treatment approaches such as cognitive behavioural therapy that focus on changing unhelpful negative future thinking may not be appropriate for this population.

The Course of Parental Psychological Distress in Childhood and Adolescent Depression

The Course of Parental Psychological Distress in Childhood and Adolescent Depression

Perceived functions and importance of digital media use and adolescent depression and suicidal ideation.

Although social media (SM) use is nearly ubiquitous among adolescents, there is a lack of clarity concerning the relationship between SM use and mental health outcomes like depression and suicidal ideation (SI), which increase during adolescence. Much of the previous literature has focused on the frequency of SM use; however, the current study examined the relationship between the perceived importance of three types of interactions and functions of SM use and depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation. A sample of 4057 adolescents (M age = 14.6; 47.0% girls; 69.0% Non-Hispanic/Latine White) were recruited via an online survey manager between February and March 2019. Participants completed the Adolescent Digital Technology Interactions and Importance (ADTI) Scale, which assessed the perceived importance of bridging online and offline experiences (bridging), going outside one's identity or offline experience (identity), and facilitating social connections (social). Participants also completed measures of depressive symptoms and SI and a self-report measure of SM use. A series of path analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between bridging, identity, social, and depressive symptoms and SI. After accounting for covariates (gender identity, racial identity, age, and SM use), bridging was negatively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas identity was positively associated with depressive symptoms. Bridging and social connection were negatively associated with SI, whereas identity was positively associated with SI. Gender moderated these relationships; however, racial identity did not. The results highlight the importance of understanding adolescent SM use beyond screen time in relation to depression and SI.

Sex-specific association of peripheral blood cell indices and inflammatory markers with depressive symptoms in early adolescence

BackgroundPrevious studies have reported the correlation of dysregulated blood cell indices and peripheral inflammatory markers with depression in adults but limited studies have examined this correlation in early adolescents. MethodsThis study used data from the Chinese Early Adolescents Cohort Study, which was conducted in Anhui, China. Students' depression symptoms were repeatedly measured using the Chinese version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children. Students' blood samples were collected in September 2019 and September 2021. The peripheral blood cell counts and inflammatory marker levels were determined using routine blood tests. Multivariable regression models were used to explore the associations between blood cell indices and adolescent depressive symptoms in both the whole sample and the sex-stratified samples. ResultsThe white blood cell (WBC) count, neutrophil count (NC), platelet (PLT) count, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio, and systemic immune inflammation index (SII) were positively correlated with the severity of depressive symptoms during follow-up. The mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean hemoglobin (HGB) volume (MCH), and mean corpuscular HGB concentration (MCHC) exhibited negative temporal correlations with depressive symptoms. Additionally, several sex-specific blood cell markers were correlated with depression. Male adolescents with increased red blood cell (RBC) and female adolescents with decreased HGB levels and upregulated WBC, NC, NLR, and SII levels exhibited severe depressive symptoms at follow-up. ConclusionsThese findings suggested the potential usefulness of peripheral blood cell indices in the assessment of depression in early adolescents.

Psychological Interventions for PTSD, Depression, and Anxiety in Child, Adolescent and Adult Forced Migrants: A Systematic Review and Frequentist and Bayesian Meta-Analyses.

The number of forced migrants has been rising for years. Many forced migrants suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and/or anxiety and need treatment. Here, we evaluate the effectiveness of psychological interventions (CBT, EMDR, expressive/art, mindfulness, mixed elements, NET and psychoeducation) in reducing symptoms of PTSD, depression, and anxiety in forced migrants. Systematic searches in PubMed and Web of Science and searches of preprint servers and grey literature were performed (final search date: 1 September 2023). Random-effects frequentist and Bayesian meta-analyses were used for data synthesis. We included 84 studies on treatment effects in adults (pooled N = 6302) and 32 on children and adolescents (pooled N = 1097). Our data show a reduction in symptoms of PTSD, depression and anxiety symptoms in both adults and child/adolescent forced migrants. Pooled pre- to post-treatment effects (effect size Cohen's d) ranged from -1.03 to -0.26 for PTSD, from -0.91 to -0.11 for depression and from -0.91 to -0.60 for anxiety, without there being differences in outcome per study design (i.e., RCT comparison vs. non-RCT comparison vs. single arm treatment study). Treatment effects remained evident over follow-up, and not a single type of treatment stood out as being superior to other treatment types. Structural differences in populations (e.g., regarding country of origin) over studies, however, could have hampered the validity of the comparisons between study characteristics such as treatment type. Our findings support the effectiveness of psychological treatment in adult and child/adolescent forced migrants.

Unraveling School Adolescent Depression: Insights into Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Adolescent depression presents a significant global mental health concern, exerting profound impacts on various facets of young people's lives. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) has emerged as a leading intervention for tackling adolescent depression, grounded in principles derived from cognitive theory. This review delves into the effectiveness, mechanisms, and outcomes of CBT in addressing adolescent depression, synthesizing findings from a range of empirical studies including randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews. The review underscores the consistent efficacy of CBT in diminishing depressive symptoms among adolescents, elucidating mechanisms such as cognitive restructuring and behavioral activation that underpin its therapeutic effects. Additionally, CBT yields favorable outcomes beyond mere symptom reduction, encompassing enhancements in social connections and academic performance. Nonetheless, challenges such as limited accessibility and hurdles in engaging adolescents persist in CBT implementation. To surmount these obstacles, forthcoming research ought to concentrate on devising innovative delivery approaches, such as internet-based interventions and school-centered programs. In essence, CBT stands as a pivotal component in the treatment of adolescent depression, furnishing a holistic framework to address the intricate interplay of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral elements, thereby fostering the mental well-being of adolescents on a global scale.

Depression in Children: A Narrative Review

The recent literature on depression in children has primarily focused on predictors/risk factors. The prevalence rates have been highly variable, ranging from a low of 3% in China to a high of 20-30% worldwide, a variability that may relate to age range differences being sampled or to different measures of depression (symptoms versus diagnoses). Negative effects of depression have included dysfunctional long-term memory, negative interactions, self-depreciation, loneliness, somatic symptoms, and suicidality. Predictors/risk factors have included maternal depression, childhood trauma, poor diet, excessive media exposure, physical inactivity, insufficient sleep, obesity, peer victimization and academic underachievement. A few buffers have been noted including authoritative parenting, cognitive reappraisal and effortful control. And interventions have included Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, exercise, and omega-3 fatty acids. Potential underlying mechanisms for depression in children include mothers’ prenatal depression, smaller anterior hippocampal volume and dysfunction in the fronto-limbic circuit and reward-related regions associated with emotion appraisal and regulation as revealed by fMRIs. Although the data highlight the severity of depression in children, they have been primarily based on parent-report surveys that have yielded mixed results across samples.

유아 자녀를 둔 어머니 우울에 관한 연구 동향

This study analyzed 102 papers published in domestic journals from 2009 to 2022 according to the year, research type and data analysis method, research subject, and research subject to understand domestic research trends related to depression of mothers with infant children. The analysis results show that first, more than three papers related to mother depression with infant children were published steadily every year between 2009 and 2022, and 54 papers (53%) were published between 2015 and 2018, and more studies were conducted than in other periods. Second, in terms of research type and data analysis method, quantitative research accounted for the highest proportion with 91 articles (89.2%), and major data analysis methods were structural equation models and regression analysis methods, 7 qualitative studies (6.9%), and 4 mixed studies (3.9%), showing a smaller proportion than quantitative studies. Third, by research subject, 88 papers (86.3%) targeting mothers from general families were the most common. Next, there were 7 papers targeting mothers with children with disabilities (6.9%), and 3 papers (2.9%) for multicultural families and low-income families, respectively. Fourth, in the research trend of each research topic, the most research on mother depression was conducted on the child variable, and the most research looked at the relationship between the child's developmental characteristics and mother's depression, followed by individual variables such as mother's psychosocial characteristics, couple variables, and family variables. Based on these results, the direction of further research related to mother depression was suggested.

A Systematic Review on Ketamine and Esketamine for Treatment-Resistant Depression and Suicidality in Adolescents: A New Hope?

Treating depression in adolescents is a significant challenge, and major depressive disorder (MDD) with suicidal ideation and treatment-resistant depression (TRD) are common and potentially devastating to optimal psychological and physical development in this age group. Suicide is among the leading causes of youth mortality, and TRD occurs in up to 40% of adolescents with MDD. TRD involves severe, persistent symptoms that are hard to treat, significantly reducing functioning and quality of life. We conducted a literature search focusing on key terms related to ketamine and esketamine for MDD with suicidal ideation and TRD in adolescents, aiming to review the potential utility of these molecules in adolescents for these conditions. Ketamine has shown efficacy in reducing depressive symptoms in adolescents with TRD. Esketamine has shown efficacy in reducing depressive symptoms and treating suicidal ideation in adolescents. Both ketamine and esketamine have demonstrated favorable safety and tolerability profiles. Using these drugs for serious conditions like adolescent MDD with suicidal thoughts and TRD can effectively treat symptoms, reduce self-harm and suicide risks, and provide a window for longer-term therapeutic interventions. The prompt and effective treatment of TRD could improve adolescents' quality of life. However, more research is needed to optimize treatment protocols and evaluate long-term effects.

The 5Cs of positive youth development: their impact on symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, and emotional distress in Chilean adolescents

Effective approaches to addressing mental health challenges faced by adolescents require a deep understanding of the factors contributing to optimal development, well-being, and prosperity. From the perspective of Positive Youth Development (PYD), this study proposes to examine the relationship between the 5Cs of PYD (Competence, Confidence, Connection, Character, and Caring) and symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, and emotional distress among Chilean adolescents. A quantitative, cross-sectional, non-experimental study was conducted with 425 adolescents (ages 12 to 19, M = 14.95, SD = 1.81) from three Chilean cities: Arica (23%), Alto Hospicio (32%), and Iquique (46%). Data analysis included the use of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM). The results indicate that two of the 5Cs, Confidence and Connection, have a significant negative direct effect on the four evaluated criterion indicators. These findings contribute to the literature on positive youth development in Latin America and underscore the importance of fostering confidence and connection in interventions aimed at promoting the mental health of adolescents in Chile and in similar contexts.

Differences in Children and Adolescents with Depression before and after a Remediation Program: An Event-Related Potential Study.

Depression is clinically diagnosed when a defined constellation of symptoms manifests over a specific duration with notable severity. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is characterized by the presence of five or more symptoms persisting for at least two weeks. As a profound mental health condition affecting millions globally, depression presents a considerable challenge for researchers and clinicians alike. In pediatric and adolescent populations, depression can precipitate adverse outcomes, including substance abuse, academic difficulties, risky sexual behaviors, physical health problems, impaired social relationships, and a markedly elevated risk of suicide-up to thirty times higher than the general population. This paper details a study that evaluated the efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) alone vs. CBT combined with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in a treatment program. The study cohort comprised sixteen (16) children and adolescents diagnosed with depression (eight males and eight females) and sixteen (16) typically developing peers (eight males and eight females) aged from 9 to 15 years (Mean age = 11.94, standard deviation = 2.02). Initial assessments employed Event-Related Potentials (ERPs), the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI), and reaction time measurements. The results reveal that participants with depression exhibit cognitive deficits in attention and memory, as evidenced by prolonged P300 latencies. Following intervention with either CBT alone or CBT combined with medication, the depressed participants demonstrated significant improvements, evidenced by lower CDI scores, reduced P300 latencies, and faster reaction times, both compared to their pre-treatment status and relative to the control group.

The effects of overparenting on depression, anxiety, and stress in adolescents: moderating effects of school connectedness and gender differences

The effects of overparenting on depression, anxiety, and stress in adolescents: moderating effects of school connectedness and gender differences