Chicago River Research Articles

Anthropogenic litter in urban freshwater ecosystems: distribution and microbial interactions.

Accumulation of anthropogenic litter (i.e. garbage; AL) and its ecosystem effects in marine environments are well documented. Rivers receive AL from terrestrial habitats and represent a major source of AL to marine environments, but AL is rarely studied within freshwater ecosystems. Our objectives were to 1) quantify AL density in urban freshwaters, 2) compare AL abundance among freshwater, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems, and 3) characterize the activity and composition of AL biofilms in freshwater habitats. We quantified AL from the Chicago River and Chicago's Lake Michigan shoreline, and found that AL abundance in Chicago freshwater ecosystems was comparable to previously reported data for marine and terrestrial ecosystems, although AL density and composition differed among habitats. To assess microbial interactions with AL, we incubated AL and natural substrates in 3 freshwater ecosystems, quantified biofilm metabolism as gross primary production (GPP) and community respiration (CR), and characterized biofilm bacterial community composition via high-throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA genes. The main driver of biofilm community composition was incubation location (e.g., river vs pond), but there were some significant differences in biofilm composition and metabolism among substrates. For example, biofilms on organic substrates (cardboard and leaves) had lower GPP than hard substrates (glass, plastic, aluminum and tiles). In addition, bacterial communities on organic substrates were distinct in composition from those on hard substrates, with higher relative abundances of bacteria associated with cellulose decomposition. Finally, we used our results to develop a conceptual diagram designed to unite the study of AL in terrestrial and freshwater environments with the well-established field of marine debris research. We suggest this broad perspective will be useful for future studies which synthesize AL sources, ecosystem effects, and fate across multiple ecosystem types, and will benefit management and reduction of global AL accumulations.

Review: Marina City: Bertrand Goldberg’s Urban Vision, by Igor Marjanović and Katerina Rüedi Ray and Bertrand Goldberg: Architecture of Invention, by Zoë Ryan, ed.

Marina City: Bertrand Goldberg’s Urban Vision New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2010, 176 pp., 105 b/w illus. $35, ISBN 9781568988634, by Igor Marjanovic and Katerina Ruedi Ray. Bertrand Goldberg: Architecture of Invention New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press and the Art Institute of Chicago, 2011, 192 pp., 140 color and 75 b/w illus. $60, ISBN 9780300167047, by Zoe Ryan, ed.. In 1967 a group of five buildings bearing the name Marina City opened for business on the north bank of the Chicago River. The city greeted the addition enthusiastically, and on two levels—cultural and social. The arts community recognized the pair of sixty-story towers that dominated the new complex as architecturally unprecedented in Chicago. Unlike most of the city’s tall buildings, they were cylindrical, not rectilinear. They were constructed of concrete, not steel. Forty-two stories of residences with balconies above were served by fourteen stories of parking ramps immediately below, and the edges of both were curved. The designers did not intend the resemblance, but the public could not help likening the elevations to a pair of giant corncobs and enjoying the comparison. So much for Chicago’s early, fascinated response to the vision newly materialized on the river. No less important, especially to the city’s movers and shakers, was the probable demographic impact of Marina City on the inner city. Chicago had recently witnessed a major population shift, with downtown steadily losing numbers, and economic and political clout, to the suburbs. For a variety of reasons Marina City promised a reversal of these fortunes. In 1959 William McFetridge, head of the Chicago Janitors’ Union, approached local architect Bertrand Goldberg with a request that Goldberg design a new headquarters for the union in downtown Chicago; the union would provide the financing. Conversations led to the proposal for a building that would combine commercial and residential facilities, with the understanding that housing would be made available to office workers in the downtown area, thus bringing new life to that section of the city. The result would be, in Goldberg’s words, “a 24-hour environment” (Ryan, 34). With the passage of time, the building became five buildings, consisting of apartments, an office building, retail …

Chicago River bridges

Chicago River bridges

Chicago’s First Tied-Arch Bridge

The distinguishing characteristics of a tied-arch bridge have long been regarded as an elegant solution for the long-span crossing. The successfully completed 47.9 m (157 ft) long and 24.4 m (80 ft) wide parabolically shaped Halsted Street Bridge over the Chicago River North Branch Canal demonstrates that a short-span tied-arch bridge can be done economically with attention to the steel details that accommodates both constructability and durability. The thoughtful steel detailing also ensures sufficient design redundancy and improves cost competitiveness.

A Three-Dimensional Water Quality Model of Chicago Area Waterway System (CAWS)

As outfalls from various water reclamation plants, pumping stations, and combined sewer overflow outfalls discharge into the Chicago Area Waterway System (CAWS), an enhanced understanding of the final fate of crucial water quality state variables is of utmost importance. This paper reports the development and application of a 3D water quality model for a modified CAWS combined with the hydrodynamic kernel of Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code (EFDC). The modified CAWS is used to demonstrate the usefulness of the model while eliminating complications beyond the scope of this initial effort. The water quality model developed and presented in this research is a simplistic dissolved oxygen (DO)—biochemical oxygen demand model with the facility to account for the interaction between the water column and the bed. The aforementioned model is applied for the month of May 2009. The results from the hydrodynamic (EFDC) and water quality model is validated with the help of the observed data obtained from United States Geological Survey gaging stations and Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago monitoring stations present inside the modeled domain. The 3D modeling captured the hydrodynamic and water-quality processes in CAWS in a satisfactory manner. Furthermore, modeling results showed and proved the interdependence of water quality characteristics in Bubbly Creek and CAWS with the effluent concentration from Racine Avenue Pumping Station situated at the head of Bubbly Creek, South Fork of South Branch of Chicago River.

New Orleans: A Disaster Waiting to Happen?

New Orleans: A Disaster Waiting to Happen?

Rising up from Indian country: the battle of Fort Dearborn and the birth of Chicago

In August 1812, under threat from the Potawatomi, Captain Nathan Heald began the evacuation of ninety-four people from the isolated outpost of Fort Dearborn to Fort Wayne, hundreds of miles away. The group included several dozen soldiers, as well as nine women and eighteen children. After traveling only a mile and half, they were attacked by five hundred Potawatomi warriors. In under an hour, fifty-two members of Heald's party were killed, and the rest were taken prisoner; the Potawatomi then burned Fort Dearborn before returning to their villages. These events are now seen as a foundational moment in Chicago's storied past. With Rising Up from Indian Country, noted historian Ann Durkin Keating richly recounts the Battle of Fort Dearborn while situating it within the context of several wider histories that span the nearly four decades between the 1795 Treaty of Greenville, in which Native Americans gave up a square mile at the mouth of the Chicago River, and the 1833 Treaty of Chicago, in which the American government and the Potawatomi exchanged five million acres of land west of the Mississippi River for a tract of the same size in northeastern Illinois and southeastern Wisconsin. In the first book devoted entirely to this crucial period, Keating tells a story not only of military conquest but of the lives of people on all sides of the conflict. She highlights such figures as Jean Baptiste Point de Sable and John Kinzie and demonstrates that early Chicago was a place of cross-cultural reliance among the French, the Americans, and the Native Americans. Published to commemorate the bicentennial of the Battle of Fort Dearborn, this gripping account of the birth of Chicago will become required reading for anyone seeking to understand the city and its complex origins.

Rejuvenating the Chicago River, Innovative Design Considerations for New Ultraviolet Disinfection Facilities

Rejuvenating the Chicago River, Innovative Design Considerations for New Ultraviolet Disinfection Facilities

The Creative Destruction of the Chicago River Harbor: Spatial and Environmental Dimensions of Industrial Capitalism, 1881–1909

This essay examines the implications of rapid technological and economic change, or what economist Joseph Schumpeter called “creative destruction,” for the urban environment. Taking the Chicago River Harbor as a case study, it argues that industrial capitalism was marked by fundamental spatial and environmental contradictions that resulted in the frequent destruction and reinvention of urban landscapes. The essay shows how transformations in the Great Lakes shipping industry and the rise of the steel industry rendered Chicago River Harbor infrastructure obsolete. That obsolescence, in turn, sparked a public debate over whether the port should be retrofitted or if the river should be harnessed for different uses. So many stakeholders—streetcar companies, commuters, City Beautiful advocates, and sanitary engineers—had conflicting ideas about the use of the river that it was practically impossible to retrofit the port. The resulting decline of industrial freight traffic on the Chicago River enabled urban planner Daniel Burnham to reinvent the riverfront as a site of leisure and consumption.

The Creative Destruction of the Chicago River Harbor: Spatial and Environmental Dimensions of Industrial Capitalism, 1881–1909

This essay examines the implications of rapid technological and economic change, or what economist Joseph Schumpeter called “creative destruction,” for the urban environment. Taking the Chicago River Harbor as a case study, it argues that industrial capitalism was marked by fundamental spatial and environmental contradictions that resulted in the frequent destruction and reinvention of urban landscapes. The essay shows how transformations in the Great Lakes shipping industry and the rise of the steel industry rendered Chicago River Harbor infrastructure obsolete. That obsolescence, in turn, sparked a public debate over whether the port should be retrofitted or if the river should be harnessed for different uses. So many stakeholders—streetcar companies, commuters, City Beautiful advocates, and sanitary engineers—had conflicting ideas about the use of the river that it was practically impossible to retrofit the port. The resulting decline of industrial freight traffic on the Chicago River enabled urban planner Daniel Burnham to reinvent the riverfront as a site of leisure and consumption.

Three-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling of the Chicago River, Illinois

We present and describe results from a three-dimensional model applied to the Chicago River under a wet weather condition. Chicago River is an integral part of Chicago, the third largest city in United States, for recreational, commercial and industrial purposes. Although the flow in the Chicago River is supposed to be from north to south, the flow acquires a three-dimensional nature at various points in the river. The reasons for the three dimensionality of the flow can be attributed to the dynamic boundary conditions generated by combined sewer overflow (CSO) events during wet weather conditions, as well as the presence of confluences of various branches of the river with creeks and slips. This work presents the hydrodynamic application and validation of a three dimensional numerical model, which was used to simulate the flow in the Chicago River for a period of 8 days in September of 2008, during which the torrential rains in the city of Chicago led to intense CSO events. The numerical model used for the aforementioned exercise is the Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code (EFDC) which solves the three dimensional vertically hydrostatic, free surface, turbulence averaged equations of motions for a variable density fluid. The results obtained by the numerical model were validated with the help of stage values obtained from the USGS gauging station [Station No. 05536123] present inside the domain of interest. It was estimated that during the storm September 2008, several billion gallons of water were discharged into Lake Michigan from the Chicago River Controlling Works to prevent city flooding. The 3D model also provides a tool for the management of the waterways, in particular for future analysis of different alternatives being considered to reverse the Chicago River once again with the goal of preventing the passage of invasive species (e.g. Asian carp) towards the Great Lakes.

Environmental Reviews and Case Studies: A Plan for Nature in Glenview: Creating and Implementing a Natural Resources Plan at the Community Level

Green infrastructure planning at the community level is explored through a description of the development and implementation of a natural resources plan for the Village of Glenview, a Chicago suburb. The plan grew from previous investments in natural resources, such as zoning and ordinance protection and the redevelopment of a 1,121-acre naval air station in the village. Projects originating from the plan have included streambank stabilizations, detention basin naturalizations, rain gardens, remeandering and naturalization of a reach of the West Fork of the North Branch of the Chicago River, and public outreach efforts. Keys to the plan's creation and implementation to date include official incorporation of a politically sophisticated Natural Resources Commission into local government, thorough ecological assessment of existing natural resources, grant funding and political viability due to the coincidence of habitat- and water-quality improvement goals, consistency with regional plans, peer recognition, ...

Effects of biologically-active chemical mixtures on fish in a wastewater-impacted urban stream

Stream flow in urban aquatic ecosystems often is maintained by water-reclamation plant (WRP) effluents that contain mixtures of natural and anthropogenic chemicals that persist through the treatment processes. In effluent-impacted streams, aquatic organisms such as fish are continuously exposed to biologically-active chemicals throughout their life cycles. The North Shore Channel of the Chicago River (Chicago, Illinois) is part of an urban ecosystem in which > 80% of the annual flow consists of effluent from the North Side WRP. In this study, multiple samplings of the effluent and stream water were conducted and fish (largemouth bass and carp) were collected on 2 occasions from the North Shore Channel. Fish also were collected once from the Outer Chicago Harbor in Lake Michigan, a reference site not impacted by WRP discharges. Over 100 organic chemicals with differing behaviors and biological effects were measured, and 23 compounds were detected in all of the water samples analyzed. The most frequently detected and highest concentration (> 100 μg/L) compounds were ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and 4-nonylphenolmono-to-tetraethoxycarboxylic acids. Other biologically-active chemicals including bisphenol A, 4-nonylphenol, 4-nonylphenolmono-to-tetraethoxylates, 4- tert-octylphenol, and 4- tert-octylphenolmono-to-tetraethoxylates were detected at lower concentrations (< 5 μg/L). The biogenic steroidal hormones 17β-estradiol, estrone, testosterone, 4-androstene-3,17-dione, and cis-androsterone were detected at even lower concentrations (< 0.005 μg/L). There were slight differences in concentrations between the North Side WRP effluent and the North Shore Channel, indicating minimal in-stream attenuation. Fish populations are continuously exposed to mixtures of biologically-active chemicals because of the relative persistency of the chemicals with respect to stream hydraulic residence time, and the lack of a fresh water source for dilution. The majority of male fish exhibited vitellogenin induction, a physiological response consistent with exposure to estrogenic compounds. Tissue-level signs of reproductive disruption, such as ovatestis, were not observed.

Allocation of supplementary aeration stations in the Chicago waterway system for dissolved oxygen improvement

The Chicago Waterway System (CWS), used mainly for commercial and recreational navigation and for urban drainage, is a 122.8 km branching network of navigable waterways controlled by hydraulic structures. The CWS receives pollutant loads from 3 of the largest wastewater treatment plants in the world, nearly 240 gravity Combined Sewer Overflows (CSO), 3 CSO pumping stations, direct diversions from Lake Michigan, and eleven tributary streams or drainage areas. Even though treatment plant effluent concentrations meet the applicable standards and most reaches of the CWS meet the applicable water quality standards, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) standards are not met in the CWS during some periods. A Use Attainability Analysis was initiated to evaluate what water quality standards can be achieved in the CWS. The UAA team identified several DO improvement alternatives including new supplementary aeration stations. Because of the dynamic nature of the CWS, the DUFLOW model that is capable of simulating hydraulics and water quality processes under unsteady-flow conditions was used to evaluate the effectiveness of new supplementary aeration stations. This paper details the use of the DUFLOW model to size and locate supplementary aeration stations. In order to determine the size and location of supplemental aeration stations, 90% compliance with a 5 mg/l DO standard was used as a planning target. The simulations showed that a total of four new supplementary aeration stations with oxygen supply capacities ranging from 30 to 80 g/s would be sufficient to meet the proposed target DO concentration for the North Branch and South Branch of the Chicago River. There are several aeration technologies, two of which are already being used in the CWS, available and the UAA team determined that the total capital costs of the alternatives range from $35.5 to $89.9 million with annual operations and maintenance costs ranging from $554,000 to $2.14 million. Supplemental aeration stations have been shown to be a potentially effective means to improve DO concentrations in the CWS and will be included in developing an integrated strategy for improving water quality in the CWS.

Characterization, performance modeling, and design of an active capping remediation project in a heavily polluted urban channel

Collateral Channel is a heavily polluted former navigation slip to the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal (Illinois, USA). Characterization of sediment cores taken in the channel show high levels of heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other contaminants in deposited sediment dating back to the 1800's. Of these, PAHs were the contaminants of greatest concern based upon exceedance of sediment contamination criteria (Σ 16 PAHs up to 1500 mg/kg). Benthic animal counts revealed a lack of biodiversity, with relatively low levels of small tubificid oligochaetes (generally < 3000/m 2) in surficial sediments. Comparison of surficial sediment contaminant levels between 1995 and 2005 showed few decreases in contaminant levels, indicating a lack of “natural recovery” processes occurring in the channel. These results led to an analysis of sediment amendments for an active capping demonstration project in the channel using transport models developed in our previous work (Viana et al., 2008). Based on the sediment characterization and modeling results, the active capping design will be focused on organic contaminant sequestration through the use of organoclay. A site-specific difficulty is the substantial rates of gas ebullition from anaerobic organic matter biodegradation in the sediments, particularly in the summer months. These gases can open advective channels that may result in substantial pollution release and compromise cap effectiveness, and thus the capping scenario must control for such releases. The active capping layer will underlay a sloped sand layer and a high permeability gas venting system to allow biogenically-produced gas migration to shoreline collectors through an innovative support grid. The cap will include an overlaying wetland to remove nutrients from the adjoining Chicago River and provide a public recreational space.

Modeling Framework for Organic Sediment Resuspension and Oxygen Demand: Case of Bubbly Creek in Chicago

A modeling framework that combines both two-dimensional (2D) and one-dimensional (1D) numerical models for the evaluation of organic-matter transport across the bed-water interface is presented. Emphasis is placed on capturing oxygen demand in the water column associated with the resuspension of organic sediments from the bottom. The proposed numerical approach solves the hydrodynamics coupled with sediment transport and water quality dynamics and represents a substantial improvement to the state of the art of water quality modeling methodologies available in the literature. A biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)–dissolved oxygen (DO) water quality module is incorporated into the 2D depth-averaged numerical model STREMR-HySedWq. The model is applied to the South Fork of the South Branch of the Chicago River, known as Bubbly Creek, with the goal of modeling combined sewer overflow (CSO) events and their impact on DO levels in the short-term (hours or days). Given the intermittent nature of this kind of events, STREMR-HySedWq was used for modeling the overflow phase, while the period following a given CSO event, when water is essentially quiescent in the creek, was modeled with a simpler 1D, area-averaged, dispersion-reaction BOD-DO model. The proposed conceptual and numerical approach is capable of capturing the key processes, thus providing both useful preliminary results as well as important guidance to assess potential water quality improvement and sediment management solutions in Bubbly Creek, Illinois.

The Reversal of The Chicago River: Flushing the System

The Reversal of The Chicago River: Flushing the System

Chicago’s Vaulted Sidewalks: History and Structural Rehabilitation

The streets of Chicago in the first half of the 19th century were built only slightly above the Chicago River water elevation and most of the roads were unpaved. As a result, during most of the year, the streets were filled with mud and water. The poor drainage bred disease and contributed to several deadly outbreaks of cholera Swanson 1997. The city tried laying wood planks over the streets, but drainage was still a problem and water would collect under the planks, rotting and warping the wood. The city created the Board of Sewerage Commissioners and designed the country’s first comprehensive underground sewer system. The street levels, however, were too low to install sewers, and, therefore, the proposed plan recommended raising the street levels. In 1855 and 1856, the city passed a series of ordinances ordering the grade level of the streets to be raised between four and 14 feet. The process took more than 20 years to complete and was accomplished by literally raising the city. Buildings were lifted up by men turning dozens of jacks in unison so that new foundations could be built underneath Cronon 1991. Figs. 1 and 2 are a representation of the street levels in the year 1855, before and after the streets were raised. Instead of raising their structures, some building owners chose to move them to a new location. Other building owners moved into the second floor of their buildings, created a new entrance, and used the first floor as a basement. Chicago’s vaulted sidewalks are a legacy of this street-raising project. As the buildings were lifted, new sidewalks had to be constructed to accommodate the new entrances and meet the new street grade Fig. 3. The VSWs are accessible only through the adjacent building’s basement.

Rivertown: Rethinking Urban Rivers (review)

Reviewed by: Rivertown: Rethinking Urban Rivers Amahia Mallea (bio) Rivertown: Rethinking Urban Rivers. Edited by Paul Stanton Kibel. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2007. Pp. 216. $55/$22. This collection of essays edited by Paul Stanton Kibel makes the case that the demands of grassroots activists have had a primary influence in altering the perception and landscape of urban waterways. By the twentieth century most urban streams and rivers had become nothing more than sewers and storm drains, flanked by polluting industries, encased in concrete, and (if they remained visible at all), considered to be undesirable places. Since the 1980s, however, activists have applied the principles and tools of the environmental movement, social justice, and “smart growth” in order to transform urban waterways into places suitable for redevelopment and recreation, and into public “ribbons of green” that may symbolize the cultural reunification of nature and city (p. 192). In his introduction, Kibel identifies questions of power and resource distribution as central for rethinking urban rivers. The urban landscape has its cultural origins with landscape architects like Frederick Law Olmsted and Jens Jensen and its concrete origins in postwar urban renewal. Though the introductory essay is chronologically disjointed, its argument is clear: there are two critical questions—who makes decisions and who benefits. Most of Kibel’s authors address these questions directly. Five chapters provide case studies of geographically diverse cities. Salt Lake City is working to “unentomb” and “daylight” its downtown creek, whileWashington, D.C., works to realize long-neglected plans for the Anacostia River. The Guadalupe River in San Jose has become a model for adaptive management as local, state, and federal entities work together toward multipurpose objectives. Chicago has long struggled with water quality and has sought a number of engineering fixes: a tunnel to bring clean water from farther out in Lake Michigan in the 1860s, diverting the fetid Chicago River via a canal to the Mississippi watershed in 1900, completing a deep tunnel sanitary system in 2006, and measures to keep invasive Asian carp from using the canal to enter the Great Lakes watershed. The banks of the infamous Bubbly Creek, once the cesspool of Chicago’s impoverished “Packingtown,” are now the site of upscale housing. Finally, [End Page 217] in “Bankside Los Angeles,” Robert Gottlieb and Andrea Misako Azuma reflect the humor and energy of river activists.After it was paved with cement in the 1930s, the Los Angeles River’s failure to resemble a river became a local joke. Now, the citizen group Friends of the L.A. River—good at attracting media attention—has changed the discourse with the promise of a reborn river. In one telling exchange, a FoLAR leader corrected a city official each time he referred to the “flood-control channel” by vocally inserting “river!” (pp. 30–31). FoLAR has succeeded in altering cultural attitudes and enabling changes in policy, and since 2000 plans for the “re-envisioning” process, along with funding, have begun to fall into place. All of this book’s authors have “dirt beneath their nails.”Whether they work for universities, or for municipalities or nonprofit organizations, they speak from “real-world experiences and not just library research,” as the editor puts it (p. 15). It is the informed experiences of the authors that make these essays so useful, and this is perhaps best illustrated in the chapters dealing with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. In “Bankside Federal,” Michelle Samet castigates the Corps for its outdated methods of planning and approving river engineering projects: “They still think they can defeat Mother Nature with brilliant engineering. They talk about the environment, but they don’t really believe in it” (p. 147). Then she suggests ways for the Corps of Engineers to become more environmentally, economically, and community conscious, as well as ways that citizens can work with the Corps to empower themselves in their own backyards. In “Bankside Citizens,” Michael Houck recounts the formation of a nationwide grassroots movement for the restoration of urban waterways. It was not city planners, or national environmental organizations, or federal agencies, but rather the “bottom feeder” activists in places like Marietta, Berkeley, and Portland, Oregon, who spawned the multitude of watershed...

Prairie Wolf Slough Wetlands Demonstration Project: A Case Study Illustrating the Need for Incorporating Soil and Water Quality Assessment in Wetland Restoration Planning, Design and Monitoring

Abstract In northeastern Illinois, restored wetlands are used to improve water quality in streams degraded by agriculture and urban development. Using freshwater wetlands to reduce nitrogen loading to lakes and rivers is well documented; however, there are fewer studies addressing their use to remove phosphorous. In 1998, a systematic water quality monitoring project was begun at Prairie Wolf Slough Wetland Demonstration Project, a restored palustrine emergent marsh wetland located on an abandoned farm field north of Chicago. The wetland drains 98 ha of mixed land uses into the Chicago River. Our objectives were to assess spatial and temporal variations in total suspended solids, soluble reactive and total phosphorous concentrations, and mass loadings and compute a mass balance and retention efficiency for these constituents. Water sampling was conducted from 1998 to 2003. In 2004, soil samples were collected from the marsh and an adjacent abandoned farm site and analyzed for soil test (Bray) phosphorus. The marsh effectively traps suspended solids but acts as a source of soluble reactive and total phosphorous to the river both during the growing and nongrowing seasons. Net export of phosphorous from the wetland was likely due to mobilization of orthophosphate as a result of anoxic conditions produced during inundation events. Often little consideration is given to the link between soil and water quality when locating restoration sites. Our study adds to a growing body of literature that clearly demonstrates the need for both soil and water quality assessments in wetland restoration planning, design, and monitoring.