Chestnut Fruits Research Articles

Physicochemical properties and nutritional evaluation of wheat and water chestnut composite flour

The present investigation was carried out to study the physiochemical properties and proximate composition of wheat and dried water chestnut composite flour. Water chestnut fruit being a rich source of starch with no gluten, its flour can be used to replace wheat flour for the production of gluten free products. Four types of composite flours were prepared using wheat and water chestnut in ratios; 80:20, 60:40, 40:60 and 20:80 (type I, type II, type III and type IV, respectively). Type I flour had significantly higher bulk density, water absorption capacity, swelling capacity as compared to other types of composite flours. Overall it was noticed that in physicochemical properties of composite flours, as the level of water chestnut flour increased, the values for these properties decreased. Among all the composite flours type I composite flour had the highest crude protein (9.4%),crude fat (3.63%) and crude fibre content (1.93%) whereas type IV composite flour had the highest ash (2.50%) and total carbohydrates content (78.00%). It found that moisture, ash and total carbohydrates in the composite flours significantly increased with the increase in the level of water chestnut flour whereas crude protein, crude fat and crude fibre were decreased significantly.

Nutritional and nutraceutical properties of raw and traditionally obtained flour from chestnut fruit grown in Tuscany

The study of local chestnut and traditional techniques related to their use and consumption are considered of primary importance to promote their nutritional/nutraceutical values. Fruit of four local chestnut cultivars (‘Carpinese’, ‘Pontecosi’, ‘Capannaccia’ and ‘Morona’) from Garfagnana (Italy) were analysed under nutritional and antioxidant aspects and compared with their flour obtained through a traditional thermal-drying process. Raw fruit contained significative amounts of P, K and Mg (~ 149, 1960 and 50 mg 100 g−1 dry weight, respectively) and they were characterised by a good moisture content (~ 49%) and starch (~ 50 g 100 g−1 dw). The traditional thermal-drying processes affected the carbohydrate content of dried chestnut showing a higher sucrose and lower starch content as compared to raw fruits. Traditional thermal-drying processes negatively influenced also total phenol content (TP) and total antioxidant activity: flours from all cultivars contained lower amounts of TP than raw fruit except for ‘Morona’ in which these compounds remained unchanged. This study provides new useful information about the evaluation of nutritional and nutraceutical characteristics of Tuscany local chestnuts and the effects of a traditional thermal-drying processing method, helping consumers and producers to valorise these “forest products”.

The Importance of the Chestnut Fruit Which is One of the Values of Aydin

Fagaceae familyasının Castanea cinsine ait olan Castanea sativa Mill, yüz yıllardır tüketilen kestane meyvesidir. Besin içeriği bakımından zengin olan kestane meyvesinin antimikrobiyal, antibakteriyel, antifungal, antienflamatuar, antikardiyovasküler ve antispazmodik özellikleri bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, kestane meyvesinin biyokimyasal özellikleri ile kestane üretimi ve ticaretinin Aydın özelinde değerlendirilmesidir. Çalışmada çeşitli kurum ve kuruluşlardan elde edilen kestane üretim ve ticaret verileri temel istatistiki yöntemlerle karşılaştırılmış ve değerlendirilmiştir. Buna göre Türkiye, yıllık 60.000-65.000 ton kestane üretim miktarı ile Çin ve Güney Kore’ den sonra üçüncü sırayı almaktadır. Aydın ili ise yıllık 20.000-26.000 ton kestane üretimi ile ülke genelinde ilk sıradadır. Aydın ilinde kestane ihracat miktarı, üretim miktarına göre oldukça düşük kalmaktadır. Gerek Aydın ilinde üretilen kestanenin çoğunun ihracata yönelik olmaması, gerekse kestanenin istenilen düzeyde üretilmemesi nedeniyle Aydın ili kestane meyvesi ile çok fazla anılmamaktadır. Biyokimyasal ve sağlık yönüyle bu kadar faydalı olan kestane meyvesinin üretim miktarı yönünden ilk sırada olan Aydın ilinde kestane işleme ve ihracatına yönelik farklı stratejiler izlenmesinin gerekli olduğu belirtilebilmektedir. Ayrıca, kestanenin gıda işleme prosesleri için farklı katma değer katacak yan ürün üretimine yönelik atılacak adımların, Aydın ekonomisi için potansiyeli tam olarak değerlendirilemeyen kestanenin geleceği açısından pozitif değer katabileceği düşünülmektedir.

Feasibility of FT-NIR spectroscopy and Vis/NIR hyperspectral imaging for sorting unsound chestnuts

Authors explored the potential use of Vis/NIR hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and Fourier-transform Near-Infrared (FT-NIR) spectroscopy to be used as in-line tools for the detection of unsound chestnut fruits (i.e. infected and/or infested) in comparison with the traditional sorting technique. For the intended purpose, a total of 720 raw fruits were collected from a local company. Chestnut fruits were preliminarily classified into sound (360 fruits) and unsound (360 fruits) batches using a proprietary floating system at the facility along with manual selection performed by expert workers. The two batches were stored at 4 ± 1 °C until use. Samples were left at ambient temperature for at least 12 h before measurements. Subsequently, fruits were subjected to non-destructive measurements (i.e. spectral analysis) immediately followed by destructive analyses (i.e. microbiological and entomological assays). Classification models were trained using the Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) by pairing the spectrum of each fruit with the categorical information obtained from its destructive assay (i.e., sound, Y = 0; unsound, Y = 1). Categorical data were also used to evaluate the classification performance of the traditional sorting method. The performance of each PLS-DA model was evaluated in terms of false positive error (FP), false negative error (FN) and total error (TE) rates. The best result (8% FP, 14% FN, 11% TE) was obtained using Savitzky-Golay first derivative with a 5-points window of smoothing on the dataset of raw reflectance spectra scanned from the hilum side of fruit using the Vis/NIR HSI setup. This model showed similarity in terms of False Negative error rate with the best one computed using data from the FT-NIR setup (i.e. 15% FN), which, however, had the lowest global performance (17% TE) due to the highest False Positive error rate (19%). Finally, considering that the total error rate committed by the traditional sorting system was about 14.5% with a tendency of misclassifying unsound fruits, the results indicate the feasibility of a rapid, in-line detection system based on spectroscopic measurements.

Post-Pyrolytic Carbon as a Phase Change Materials (PCMs) Carrier for Application in Building Materials.

This article covers new application for char as a carrier of phase-change materials (PCM) that could be used as an additive to building materials. Being composed of bio-char and PCM, the granulate successfully competes with more expensive commercial materials of this type, such as Micronal® PCM. As a PCM carrier, char that was obtained from the pyrolysis of chestnut fruit (Aesculus hippocastanum) with different absorbances of the model phase-change material, Rubitherm RT22, was tested. DSC analysis elucidated several thermal properties (such as enthalpy, phase transition temperature, and temperature peak) of those mixtures and the results were compared with a commercial equivalent, Micronal DS 5040 X. Comparative research, approximating realistic conditions, were also performed by cooling and heating samples in a form of coatings that were made from chars with different content of RT22. These results indicated that the use of char as a PCM carrier was not only possible, but also beneficial from a thermodynamic point of view and it could serve as an alternative to commercial products. In this case, adsorption RT22 into char allowed for temperature stabilization comparable to Micronal DS 5040 X with ease of use as well as the economic advantages of being very low cost to produce due to microencapsulation. Other advantage of the proposed solution is related with the application of char obtained from waste biomass pyrolysis as a PCM carrier, and using this product in building construction to improve thermal comfort and increase energy efficiency.

Agro-morphological and biochemical characteristics of disease-free seed propagated European chestnuts (Castanea sativa Mill.)

Disease and pest free chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) fruits were collected from 13 different seedling origin genotypes during the 2016 harvest season from the Mediterranean region of Turkey. The tree growth habit, nut weight, kernel ratio, kernel color, moisture, crude protein, crude fat, dietary fiber, total polyphenols, antioxidant activity, and fatty acid content of chestnuts were determined. The results showed that most of the genotypes had a semi-upright tree growth habit. The nut weight and kernel ratio were 5.87 g (A-9), 11.13 g (A-1), 73.38% (A-1), and 82.84% (A-12) among genotypes. The total crude fat content ranged from 0.80% (A-11) to 2.14% (A-12) while the crude protein content was between 4.78% (A-10) and 7.96% (A-9). Total polyphenols varied from 78 (A-12) to 124 (A-3) μg GAE/g and antioxidant activity was found to vary between 5.33 (A-12) and 9.83 (A-3) μmoles Trolox equivalent/g dry weight basis. Oleic and linoleic acid were the major fatty acids in all chestnut fruits, followed by palmitic and linolenic acids. The introduction of these genotypes as new cultivars by vegetative propagation may result in an increase in the quality of the chestnuts from the Mediterranean region of Turkey.

Castanea sativa shells and fruits: Compositional analysis by proton induced X-ray emission

Chestnut fruits, from Castanea sativa Miller species, have been previously characterized mainly to study the nutritional and biochemical parameters, with mineral contents receiving less attention from the researchers, although these minerals are essential for several mechanisms in human body. In this study, a detailed elemental compositional analysis was performed using Proton Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) to characterize two varieties of Castanea sativa Miller chestnuts (Longal and Judia). This study comprises the composition of the outer shells (pericarp), inner shells (episperm) and the edible fruits. From our knowledge, this is the first time that the presence of up to 20 elements on the shells and the fruits are reported. Furthermore, by PIXE it was possible to quantify them, allowing significant improvements in the assessment of chestnuts composition. Essential and non-essential elements were quantified on a food item that is used mainly for human consumption but it is also incorporated in animal feeding.

MULTI-PURPOSE CHESTNUT CLUSTERS DETECTION USING DEEP LEARNING: A PRELIMINARY APPROACH

Abstract. In the early 1980′s, the European chestnut tree (Castanea sativa, Mill.) assumed an important role in the Portuguese economy. Currently, the Trás-os-Montes region (Northeast of Portugal) concentrates the highest chestnuts production in Portugal, representing the major source of income in the region (€50M-€60M). The recognition of the quality of the Portuguese chestnut varieties has increasing the international demand for both industry and consumer-grade segments. As result, chestnut cultivation intensification has been witnessed, in such a way that widely disseminated monoculture practices are currently increasing environmental disaster risks. Depending on the dynamics of the location of interest, monocultures may lead to desertification and soil degradation even if it encompasses multiple causes and a whole range of consequences or impacts. In Trás-os-Montes, despite the strong increase in the cultivation area, phytosanitary problems, such as the chestnut ink disease (Phytophthora cinnamomi) and the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica), along with other threats, e.g. chestnut gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphilus) and nutritional deficiencies, are responsible for a significant decline of chestnut trees, with a real impact on production. The intensification of inappropriate agricultural practices also favours the onset of phytosanitary problems. Moreover, chestnut trees management and monitoring generally rely on in-field time-consuming and laborious observation campaigns. To mitigate the associated risks, it is crucial to establish an effective management and monitoring process to ensure crop cultivation sustainability, preventing at the same time risks of desertification and land degradation. Therefore, this study presents an automatic method that allows to perform chestnut clusters identification, a key-enabling task towards the achievement of important goals such as production estimation and multi-temporal crop evaluation. The proposed methodology consists in the use of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to classify and segment the chestnut fruits, considering a small dataset acquired based on digital terrestrial camera.

First Report of Gnomoniopsis smithogilvyi Causing Chestnut Brown Rot on Chestnut Fruit in Michigan

First Report of <i>Gnomoniopsis smithogilvyi</i> Causing Chestnut Brown Rot on Chestnut Fruit in Michigan

Content of Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of New Gluten-Free Pasta with the Addition of Chestnut Flour.

Chestnut fruit abounds in carbohydrates, proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, fiber, polyphenolic compounds, as well as vitamins and micronutrients, that are behind the health-promoting properties of this plant. The purpose of the discussed research was to obtain innovative gluten-free pasta from rice and field bean flour enriched with a various addition of chestnut flour. Regarding the studied pasta, the following were determined: the content of free phenolic acids, total polyphenols, and antioxidant properties. Chromatographic analysis (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS (high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry)) revealed a wide variety of phenolic acids. In a sample with 20% and higher content of chestnut flour, as many as 13 acids were detected. Isoferulic acid prevailed. The total content of free phenolic acids and total polyphenols increased along with the increasing chestnut content. Moreover, in most cases, the content of individual acids increased with the addition of chestnut flour. Besides, the antioxidant activity was positively correlated with the addition of chestnut fruit flour, the content of free phenolic acids, and total polyphenols. Our research has demonstrated that our innovative gluten-free pasta, with the addition of chestnut flour, has a potential to be a source of polyphenolic compounds, including free phenolic acids, that are valuable for human health.

Evaluation of Energy and Economic Analysis of Chestnut (Castanea Sativa Mill.) Fruit Production in Turkey

The purpose of this study is to determine and evaluate the energy use efficiency analysis of chestnut fruit production. The evaluation of situation was done for 2016 production season in Aydin province of Turkey. The agricultural input energies and output energies used in chestnut production were calculated to determine the energy use efficiency analysis. According to the study findings, the energy inputs in chestnut production were calculated respectively as 3175.20 MJ ha−1 (51.53%) chemical fertilizers energy, 1621.51 MJ ha−1 (26.32%) human labour energy, 675 MJ ha−1 (10.95%) petrol/gasoline energy, 450 MJ ha−1 (7.30%) farmyard manure energy, 213.11 MJ ha−1 (3.46%) animal labour energy and 27 MJ ha−1 (0.44%) transportation energy. Total input energy and output energy were calculated as 6161.82 MJ ha−1 and 70,800 MJ ha−1. The energy output/input ratio, chestnut fruit (yield), specific energy, energy productivity and net energy were calculated respectively as 11.49, 6000 kg ha−1, 1.02 MJ kg−1, 0.97 kg MJ−1 and 64,638.18 MJ ha−1. The performed total energy input in chestnut production could be classified as 40.73% direct, 59.27% indirect, 37.08% renewable and 62.92% non-renewable. Benefit-cost ratio was calculated as 3.29 for chestnut fruit.

Starch hydrogels from discarded chestnuts produced under different temperature‐time gelatinisation conditions

SummaryIt is essential to know the temperature‐time dependence on the chestnut starch gelatinisation process. With this aim, physicochemical and thermomechanical properties of native chestnut starch and with different gelatinisation degrees, isolated from discarded chestnut fruits under environmental friendly aqueous procedures, were studied. Isolated starch (144.96 ± 1.74 μm) presented high total starch (91.83 ± 0.24%), low damage starch (0.10 ± 0.04%), apparent amylose content of 20.31 ± 1.48% and relative crystallinity of 15.7 ± 0.4% with a C‐type pattern. Chestnut starch dispersions were formulated at 40% (w/w). Rheological measures indicated that temperatures below 60 °C were not able to form a hydrogel. The hydrogels formed between 62.5 and 65 °C (peak and final gelatinisation temperature, respectively) developed a stable and strong network with short maturation times and full thermoreversibility. Finally, hydrogels prepared above 65 °C were weaker and no completely thermoreversible. A linear relationship was identified between elastic features determined by rheology (G′gel,1 Hz) and texture (springiness, D1/D2).

Productivity, chemical composition and sensory quality of “Martaínha” chestnut variety treated with Silicon

ABSTRACTThe increasing demand for healthy products rises the pressure on the chestnut production due to their nutritional qualities and beneficial health effects. Martaínha chestnut variety is most well-adapted with great economic importance due to its precocity and technological properties. The exogenous application of Silicon has an important role in agriculture because of improvement of plants nutrition. Nevertheless, the knowledge of impact of Silicon application in the production, sensory quality and chemical composition of chestnut fruits is limited. The application of Si in leaves (SL) and soil (SS) have important action on the prophylactic properties and the promotion of chestnuts health. Moreover, higher number of healthy fruits, caliber, fruits without rotten and tortrix infection and lower water loss in post-harvest chestnuts, in SL and SS samples, highlights the Si positive action. Additionally this study emphasizes some positive effects of Silicon on the chemical and sensory profile.

Gas and short-chain fatty acid production from feeds commonly fed to red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) and incubated with rumen inoculum from red deer and sheep.

Efficient red deer supplementary feeding depends on estimations of the nutritive value of offered feeds, frequently estimated with the use of equations derived from domestic ruminants. The aim of this study was to compare the 24-hour in vitro true dry matter degradability (ivTD24 ), in vitro gas production (GP) kinetic parameters, GP in 24hr of incubation (GAS24 ) and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) and microbial biomass (MBS) produced after 24-hour incubation of feeds in inoculum prepared from sheep and red deer rumen fluid. Eleven feeds, frequently consumed by red deer in Slovenia, which occur either naturally (two fresh grasses, chestnut fruits and common and sessile oak acorns) or are fed as winter supplemental feeds (two grass hays, two grass silages, apple pomace, fresh sugar beetroot), were investigated. The in vitro GP kinetic parameters, GAS24 and ivTD24 , did not differ between animal species. Amounts of SCFAs were greater (p<0.05) when feeds were incubated in sheep inoculum, while molar proportions of acetic and propionic acids did not differ. Molar proportions of butyric acid produced during incubation of high fibre feeds did not differ between animal species, but were higher (p<0.05) when feeds high in starch or sugar were incubated in red deer inoculum. Greater production of SCFA by sheep rumen microbes suggests better coverage of host animal with energy precursors, while greater production of MBS by red deer rumen microbes suggests better coverage of host animal with protein. Results also suggest that rumens of sheep and red deer are inhabited by different microbial communities, which did not affect the extent of in vitro GP and degradation of feeds used in the present experiment. However, the possibility exists that the divergent nutrient use could be a consequence of different priming by different feeds of the donor animal diets.

Differences between sheep and red deer in in vitro apparent and true digestibility of commonly used red deer feeds

The nutritive value of red deer feeds is frequently determined by sheep despite the ultimate arbitrator of the nutritive value of any feed is the host animal. The objective of the trial was to determine the influence of rumen fluid donor (sheep vs red deer) on in vitro dry matter (DMD), neutral-detergent fibre (NDFD) and true digestibility (ivTD) of eleven substrata, naturally occurring in Slovenian forests (chestnut fruits, acorns of common and sessile oak, two fresh grasses) and those frequently used in supplemental red deer feeding (two grass hays and two grass silages, apple pomace and sugar beet roots). Only the fresh grass from Jelendol had greater (p &lt; 0.05) DMD (646 vs 508 g/kg) when incubated in red deer inoculum. The NDFD and ivTD were always numerically greater when substrates were incubated in red deer inocula, however the NDFD and ivTD were significantly greater (p &lt; 0.05) only when fresh grass from Jelendol (590 vs 343 g/kg and 801 vs 681 g/kg, respectively), grass silage from Kokra (541 vs 359 g/kg and 742 vs 639 g/kg, respectively) and apple pomace (428 vs 328 g/kg and 704 vs 653 g/kg, respectively) were incubated in the inoculum prepared from red deer rumen contents. These results indicate that rumen fluid from sheep can be used to predict in vitro digestibility in red deer and that these parameters can be used in the formulation of deer diets.

A bio-guided approach for the development of a chestnut-based proanthocyanidin-enriched nutraceutical with potential anti-gastritis properties

Gastritis is a widely spread inflammatory disease, mostly caused by Helicobacter pylori infection. Release of IL-8 by the stomach epithelium is a hallmark of gastritis and contributes to the amplification of the inflammatory state. Pharmacological modulation of IL-8 release is a strategy to relieve gastric inflammation and prevent more severe clinical outcomes. In search of nutraceuticals with potential anti-gastritis properties we used a bio-guided approach based on IL-8 secretion by gastric cells to characterize extracts from the fruits of different chestnut varieties.We found that the ability to inhibit IL-8 secretion correlated with the amount of proanthocyanidins and was associated to the not edible parts of chestnut in all the tested varieties. We also found that the anti-inflammatory activity is preserved upon mild thermal treatment and after in vitro simulated gastric digestion.By combining a robust bio-guided approach with a comprehensive analysis of the tannin fraction of chestnut extracts, we provide evidence for the potential use of chestnut-based nutraceuticals in human gastritis. The bioactive components of chestnut fruits inhibit IL-8 secretion by impairing NF-κB signaling and by other mechanisms, thus opening new applications of proanthocyanidins for inflammation-based diseases.

Removal of RY42 anionic dye pollutant from aqueous solution using novel reusable adsorbent prepared from water chestnut peel and fruit

Herein a novel low-cost reusable adsorbent namely water chestnut (WCN) peels and fruit were used for the dye polluted wastewater treatment. Moreover, to enhance the adsorption efficiency of WCN peel and fruit it surface was modified with sodium dodecyl sulphate, whereas surface area of sample was changed via immobilizing the sample in to beads using polyvinyl alcohol- Sodium alginate. Surface modification and change in surface area reduced the adsorption potential of WCN peel and fruit for reactive yellow 42 dye as compared to unmodified sample of WCN. A distinct change in surface morphology after surface modification was observed by scanning electron microscopy. At optimized concentration of dye (50 mgL-1) equilibrium was attained within 120 minutes, kinetic data obtained was well interpreted by pseudo-second order kinetic model. Langmuir and Freundlich isothermal models were applied to explain isothermal data. Statistical analysis was done using regression line. A 0.01 M NaOH solution successfully eluted the dye from adsorbent, confirming it as reusable adsorbent

Morphological characterization of sweet chestnut fruits from forest plantations in central Chile

The sweet chestnut ( Castanea sativa Mill.) is one of the most important starchy foods worldwide due to its low fat content and high nutritional value. This study is the first analysis of the sweet chestnut fruit in forest plantations where the morphological properties are characterized, in terms of caliber, size, shape, and internal cracking, damage, and cavities. The study was based in three sites in Chile, Los Rios Region (39°S), where most of the forest chestnut plantations are located. Scott and Knott test of variance and contingency tables were used as statistical methods for site comparisons. In general, no significant differences in size were found among sites. Moreover, the Chilean forest sweet chestnut can be defined as a small-caliber fruit with slight internal cracking and internal damage and almost no cavities. Therefore, due to its morphological characteristic (especially caliber), it has the potential to be used for secondary food products.

Evaluation of the combating against chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) in terms of silviculture: The sample of Kütahya Simav

The objective of this study was to determine the factors causing the deterioration of the stand structures of chestnut forests in Kütahya-Simav and to reveal the relation between these factors and chestnut diseases. Chestnut forests in Kütahya Simav were chosen as research area in this study. The damages given to forests in the result of the combating against chestnut blight, Cryphonectria parasitica, and harvest of chestnut fruit were investigated in terms of silvicultural treatments. Three different sample plots were chosen from the research area. In each sample plot, the diameters, diseases and grafting status (exist or not) of the trees were determined. Stand structures of these forests were also investigated. As a result of the study, the disease state of the chestnut individuals in the sample areas was determined. It was found that on average 11% were completely dry, 6% were partially dry, and 46% were cancerous but capable of survival. Also, effectiveness in the combating against chestnut blight of silvicultural treatments was investigated. In the result of unconscious interventions made by the local people (grafting, harvesting, etc.) have observed that stand structure of chestnut forests are corrupted and disease increase.

Development of an Energy Biorefinery Model for Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) Shells

Chestnut shells (CS) are an agronomic waste generated from the peeling process of the chestnut fruit, which contain 2.7–5.2% (w/w) phenolic compounds and approximately 36% (w/w) polysaccharides. In contrast with current shell waste burning practices, this study proposes a CS biorefinery that integrates biomass pretreatment, recovery of bioactive molecules, and bioconversion of the lignocellulosic hydrolyzate, while optimizing materials reuse. The CS delignification and saccharification produced a crude hydrolyzate with 12.9 g/L of glucose and xylose, and 682 mg/L of gallic acid equivalents. The detoxification of the crude CS hydrolyzate with 5% (w/v) activated charcoal (AC) and repeated adsorption, desorption and AC reuse enabled 70.3% (w/w) of phenolic compounds recovery, whilst simultaneously retaining the soluble sugars in the detoxified hydrolyzate. The phenols radical scavenging activity (RSA) of the first AC eluate reached 51.8 ± 1.6%, which is significantly higher than that of the crude CS hydrolyzate (21.0 ± 1.1%). The fermentation of the detoxified hydrolyzate by C. butyricum produced 10.7 ± 0.2 mM butyrate and 63.9 mL H2/g of CS. Based on the obtained results, the CS biorefinery integrating two energy products (H2 and calorific power from spent CS), two bioproducts (phenolic compounds and butyrate) and one material reuse (AC reuse) constitutes a valuable upgrading approach for this yet unexploited waste biomass.