Chemical Terrorism Research Articles

Management of Chemical Terrorism and Chemical Disasters

Though the possibility of terrorist groups obtaining chemical weapons and inflicting mass destruction is relatively low, the relevance of chemical agents remains high since the use of such chemical agents in causing potentially dangerous consequences remains very high. Sporadic chemical attacks and chemical disasters happen all over the world, and they cause long-lasting damages. Easy accessibility to various toxic industrial chemicals and the relatively simple know-how needed to synthesize chemical agents pose a serious threat. However, technological developments and the easy availability of information have empowered the security forces and law enforcement agencies to formulate a responsive mechanism to mitigate the ill effects of chemical disasters. Though the international and national agencies strive hard to ward off the debilitating effects of chemical agents and disasters, such efforts' capability to address the potential risks remains doubtful. This review describes the characteristics and classification of chemical agents and toxic industrial chemicals, their physicochemical properties, detection, decontamination, and response by the security agencies and first responders in addressing the threat to humanity in the form of chemical terrorism and chemical disasters.

Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Response: There's an App for That 2.0.

In disaster response, smartphone applications (or apps) are being used by the layperson, emergency first responders, and health care providers to aid in everything from incident reporting to clinical decision making. However, quality apps are often diluted by the overwhelming number of apps that exist for both the lay public and first responders in the Apple iTunes (Apple Inc.; Cupertino, California USA) and Google Play (Google LLC; Mountain View, California USA) stores. A systematic review of disaster response apps was originally completed in 2015; a follow-up review was completed here to evaluate trends and explore novel apps. A search of the Apple iTunes and Google Play stores was performed using the following terms obtained from PubMed (National Center for Biotechnology Information; Bethesda, Maryland USA) Medical Subject Headings Database: Emergency Preparedness; Emergency Responders; Disaster; Disaster Planning; Disaster Medicine; Bioterrorism; Chemical Terrorism; Hazardous Materials; and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA [Washington, DC USA]). After excluding any unrelated apps, a working list of apps was formed and categorized based on topics. Apps were categorized by intended user (first responders or the public) and sub-categorized by topic for discussion. Sub-categories included News/Information, Reference/Education, Weather/Natural Disasters, Travel/Navigation, and Communication/Reunification. A search of the Apple iTunes store revealed 394 unique apps and was narrowed to 342 based on relevance to the field and availability on the iPhone. A search of the Google Play store yielded 645 unique applications and was narrowed to 634 based on relevance. Of note, 49 apps appeared in both app stores using the search terms. An aggregate 927 apps from the Apple iTunes and Google Play stores were then critically reviewed by the authors. Apps were sub-categorized based on intended audience, layperson or first responder, and sorted into one of five disaster response categories. Two apps were chosen for discussion from each of the five sub-categories. The highest quality apps were determined from each group based on relevance to emergency preparedness and disaster response, rating, and number of reviews. After comparisons with the 2015 article, many new apps have been developed and previously described apps have been updated, highlighting that this is a constantly changing field deserving of continued analysis and research.

Parallel Coupling of Ion Mobility Spectrometry and Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry for the Real-Time Alarm Triggering and Identification of Hazardous Chemical Leakages.

Hazardous chemical leakages involved in chemical terrorist attacks and chemical industrial accidents have been posing severe threats to human health and the environment. Vehicle-mounted mass spectrometry (MS) has been developed for continuous, on-road measurements to map the spatial and temporal distributions of hazardous chemicals. However, the detection of chemicals with small temporal scales and spatial scales is always challenging. In this study, a parallel coupling apparatus combining the techniques of ion mobility spectrometry and ion trap MS (p-IMS-ITMS) was developed to improve the detection rate and the time response capability of a stand-alone ITMS system for short time-span chemical tracking. A workflow was also proposed along with the apparatus, where the ITMS system can be triggered, as chemical suspects were discovered with the IMS system. The sampling positions of the ITMS system were investigated and optimized. In addition, a strategy was proposed to diminish the time span of samples from 1.5 to 0.5 s for evaluating the performances of the p-IMS-ITMS system. The detection rate of the stand-alone ITMS system was measured to be only 9.5, 32, and 87.5% for the time span of 0.5, 1, and 1.5 s, respectively. By comparison, the detection rates of the p-IMS-ITMS system were 99.5, 100, and 100%, where the detection rate was increased by a factor of 10 for 0.5 s time span. Moreover, the addition of an IMS system could provide temporal patterns of hazardous chemicals with a resolution of 33 ms. Finally, the potential of the p-IMS-ITMS system for environmental navigation monitoring and assessment was further demonstrated by detecting the leakages of dimethyl methyl phosphonate and dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether.

Paper-Based Analytical Device for the On-Site Detection of Nerve Agents.

We report a colorimetric paper-based microfluidic device based on an enzyme inhibition assay that allows the on-site detection of nerve agents by sampling and wicking. The sample and reagents are automatically transported through the channel where an enzyme inhibition reaction is conducted, followed by an enzyme-substrate reaction and a color reaction. This device can detect 0.1 μg/mL of the nerve agent VX in a 2.5 μL drop and is nerve agent selective and robust against temperature, pH, and several liquids. We confirmed that sampling procedures (dilution and wiping) are applicable to this device. Furthermore, the fabrication procedure is easy, and the cost is at most a few tens of cents. Thus, the present device provides a practical method for the urgent detection of nerve agents in suspected chemical terrorism incidents.

Perception, Education, and Training of the Chemical Terror Response of Firefighters

This study identifies the characteristics and influencing factors among survey respondents in response to domestic chemical terrorism by targeting firefighters sent to the front line of chemical accidents and chemical terrorism sites. It was carried out to present more efficient improvement measures for chemical terrorism. Regarding “Education and Training on Chemical Terrorism,” there were 3.01 points for “Education’s Information Transferability,” 2.65 points for “Satisfaction with Training Facilities,” 3.11 points for “Training (Theoretical) Effectiveness,” and 3.16 points for “Training (Practice) Effectiveness.” In total, 42.9% of the negative responses were regarding the satisfaction level of training facilities, demonstrating that domestic training facilities were the biggest problem in establishing current countermeasures. Rather than the training curriculum, it was judged that the training facilities were insufficient or absent, and it is necessary to secure and improve these facilities. Based on the survey results, training methods for team-level tactics and joint tactics between departments, hazard and risk assessment training for accident site commanders, and education on effective equipment utilization should be intensively conducted to secure safety and improve the response capabilities of field staff.

Recognition and Status of Response Equipment Related to Chemical Accidents and Terrorism

This study analyzes the perception, status, and problems of domestic firefighters related to chemical accidents and chemical terror response equipment. “How to use on-site response facilities and equipment” was 10% when “0 times” and 28.4% when “1 to 4 times,” indicating that the importance of the ‘experience’ category is greatly increased when there is a lack of relative experience. As for whether measurement equipment is retained, 20.0% of negative responses in the ‘special structure’ were found to differ in function by “Duty.” The effects of equipment-related proficiency and preference appear to be differences in equipment primarily held by special and chemical rescue teams. Problems with on-site response will require advisory experts on post-processing and analyses and the training of professional firefighters. Accordingly, through intensive interest and analyses in the field of special disaster responses, securing expertise, and fostering professional personnel, these problems can be addressed.

Prevention of armament race in outer space: the questions of biosafety and countering WMD terrorism

This article comprehensively analyzes the legal mechanisms for preventing the armament race in outer space, as well as international legal issues of ensuring biosafety. The author examines the Russian initiative in counteracting chemical and biological terrorism, which is the most promising instrument for overcoming the gaps in international law. Recommendations are made on strengthening the modern system of international agreements in area of international humanitarian law and law of international security. The object of this research is the relations between the actors of international law in the sphere of biosafety, countering chemical and biological terrorism, and prevention of the armament race in outer space. Methodological framework is comprised of the formal-legal, system-functional, normative-dogmatic, and analytical methods. The conclusion is made that due to the absence of prohibiting provisions in the existing norms of international law, the weapons that do not fall under the category of weapon of mass destruction, may theoretically appear and be applied in outer space, which would undermine the strategic stability, pose a real threat to the international peace and security, and as well as cause a “mirror” response from other key players in outer space. There is currently no alternative to the China-Russia PAROS treaty (Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space). With regards to the questions of biosafety, the participant countries of the Biological Weapons Convention must continue to advocate for the adoption of a Protocol to the Convention with the effective mechanism of verification , which is blocked by the United States, and resist the proposals of the United States to create politically motivated and subjective mechanisms that would bypass the procedures of the Biological Weapons Convention.

First person – Justin Jacob

ABSTRACT First Person is a series of interviews with the first authors of a selection of papers published in Journal of Cell Science, helping early-career researchers promote themselves alongside their papers. Justin Jacob is first author on ‘Keratin 17 regulates nuclear morphology and chromatin organization’, published in JCS. Justin conducted the research described in this article while a PhD candidate in the laboratories of Pierre A. Coulombe (primary) and Michael J. Matunis, PhD (secondary) at Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Baltimore, MD, USA. He is now a supervisory chemist and chemical terrorism coordinator at the Clinical Toxicology Unit in the Public Health Lab Division at the Washington D.C. Department of Forensic Sciences. This unit involves a (1) drug monitoring program and a (2) laboratory response network for a chemical threats program.

A Study on Improvement Plan for Selecting Boundary Areas to Respond to Chemical Accidents and Terrorism

A Study on Improvement Plan for Selecting Boundary Areas to Respond to Chemical Accidents and Terrorism

A Study on Improvement of Damage Impact Range Assessment for Field-Based Response Against Chemical Terrorism and Accidents

A Study on Improvement of Damage Impact Range Assessment for Field-Based Response Against Chemical Terrorism and Accidents

Preparing Social Services and Public Services Professionals for Meaningful Roles in Disaster Services

ABSTRACT This manuscript reviews the importance of disaster preparedness for the social services and public services professional. The value in separating fact from fiction in regard to probabilities for biological, chemical, and nuclear terrorism is highlighted. The various phases of disaster preparedness are elucidated along with the components of the effective all-hazards plan. Consideration of the psychological impact of disasters is presented in conjunction with the role of the mental health worker in the amelioration of outcomes. The role of electronic technology in disaster preparedness is elaborated, and useful websites are cited to facilitate disaster planning.

Five Decades of Global Chemical Terror Attacks: Data Analysis to Inform Training and Preparedness.

Chemical weapons attacks during the recent conflict in Syria and Iraq highlight the need to better understand the changing epidemiology of chemical weapons use, especially among non-state actors. Public health professionals and policy-makers require this data to prioritize funding, training, chemical weapons preparedness, disaster response, and recovery. The purpose of this investigation is to provide descriptive data that can be used by policy-makers and public safety officials to better prepare for these potential attacks. A five-decade descriptive retrospective review of The Global Terrorism Database, maintained by the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, was conducted to understand trends in chemical agents, targets, and routes of exposure. We reviewed and analyzed data specific to these documented chemical attacks between 1970 and 2017. 383 terror attacks involved chemical weapons over the study period. A specific agent was named in 154 incidents, while 124 incidents could be classified into traditional chemical weapons categories (eg, vesicant, choking agents). A route of exposure was identified in 242 attacks, with the most common routes of exposure being dermal-mucosal and inhalational. Caustic agents were used in the highest portion of attacks (25%) where the route of exposure was known. Explosive devices were used in 21% of attacks to deliver these chemical agents. Of particular note, private citizens and educational facilities were targeted in 25% and 12% of attacks, respectively. The average number of attacks increased from 6 per year between 1970 and 2011 to 24.9 per year between 2011 and 2017 (coinciding with the start of the Syria conflict). The most commonly utilized chemicals were chlorine (26.0%), tear gas (20.8%), and cyanide (15.6%). Blood agent incidents declined from 32.6% before the September 11, 2001 attacks to 13.6% after 2001, while nerve agent attacks fell from 9.3% to 1.2%. In contrast, choking (namely chlorine) and vesicant (mustard) agent use increased from 7% to 48.1% and from 2.3% to 6.2% of attacks, respectively. Chemical weapon use in global terrorism remains an increasingly common occurrence that requires better characterization. The average number of chemical terrorist attacks per year is increasing, with a large proportion resulting from the conflicts in Iraq and Syria. Choking (chlorine) and vesicant (mustard) agents have become the predominant chemical terror agent since 2001, with a decreased incidence of blood (cyanogenic) and nerve (sarin) agents. Future preparedness initiatives should focus on vulnerable targets such as private citizens and educational institutions. Improving blast injury response is essential, along with prioritizing disaster training focused on choking agents, vesicants, and caustics.

First Responders’ and Librarians’ Intention to Use Web-Based Resources for Response Information During Biological, Chemical, and Radiological Terrorism Events

Abstract Emergency planners and first responders often access web-based information resources during disasters; however, these tools require an active Internet connection, which may be unavailable during a disaster. The National Library of Medicine (NLM) provides several free non-web-based disaster response tools. This study assessed intention to use web-based and non-web-based informational and response tools during disasters among emergency responders and librarians. Educational workshops were held in four Missouri cities in spring, 2016. The NLM tools were presented and attendees practiced using the tools during disaster scenarios. Pre- and post-intervention data about NLM tool awareness and intention to use these tools versus other web-based resources was collected. McNemar tests assessed a pre/post change in intention to use each resource. Four workshops were held, with a total of 74 attendees. Intention to use the NLM tools was low prior to the workshops (range: 20.3–39.2%), but increased significantly immediately afterwards (p < .001 for all pre/post comparisons). The workshops resulted in increased NLM tool awareness and increased intention to use the tools during future disasters. This provides evidence of attendees’ perceptions of the usefulness of the non-web-based NLM tools in place of other web-based tools in situations without Internet access.

Selective and rapid detection of nerve agent simulants by polymer fibers with a fluorescent chemosensor in gas phase

Nerve agents (NAs) are the most feared and unpredictable chemical warfare agents (CWAs) on the battlefield and in the hands of terrorists. To cope with chemical terrorism or chemical warfare, it is urgent to establish a rapid and reliable detection method for NAs. In this work, we have developed two 6-aminoquinolin-2-yl-methanols (AQmol-1 and AQmol-2), which can selectively detect two nerve agent simulants, diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) and diethylchlorophosphate (DCP), over other organophosphate compunds. In this sensing reaction, the hydroxy group of two sensors is phosphorylated by DFP/DCP and simulanutaus protonation of nitrigen of the quinoline to form a stronger electron donor-acceptor (DA) molecule over the sensor molecule, giving corresponding fluorescence response. Therein, AQmol-2 diplays ratiometirc fluorescence response towards DFP/DCP with a lower limit of detection (LOD) 0.18 μM or 0.16 μM, respectively. Furthermore, two AQmol-2 embedded solid polymers, membrane and fibers (the diameter <1 μm), were fabricated for detection of DFP/DCP vapor. Both AQmol-2-embedded solid-state polymers can detect DFP/DCP vapor more rapidly over those (about 30 min) in solutions. The polymer fibers from an electrospaning technology give more rapid response toward DCP (within 20 s) over that (3 min) of the membrane. Therefore, AQmol-2-embedded polymer nanofibrosis is promissing way for selective and rapid detection of nerve agents in gas phase.

Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Rapid and on-Site Chemical Threat Assessment

First responders, such as law enforcement officers or emergency medical personnel, are often faced with making critical decisions for scene management before knowing the root cause of the incident. Unfortunately, the threat of chemical and biological terror acts remains a growing global concern and when such events occur the timing of chemical and biological information is critical. Therefore, it is imperative that advances be made in bringing rapid chemical analysis directly into the field.Wearable electrochemical sensors are well placed to fill this technology gap to advance real-time chemical analytics at the point-of-need. The seamless integration of chemical sensors and biosensors within wearable platforms brings the power of laboratory-based chemical analyses directly to the wearer’s body [1]. While the majority of these wearable sensor systems have focused on healthcare and fitness applications, there are growing demands for developing wearable sensor platforms for rapid and on-site chemical threat assessment for a diverse range of forensic, security and defence applications.To this effect, this presentation will detail recent progress in glove-based wearable electrochemical sensors, where electrochemical sensing modalities are coupled to dexterous and tactile sampling strategies to provide critical chemical information where needed the most [2]. In particular, there will be a focus on the integration of enzymatic biosensors for the detection of organophosphorus chemical threats [3], through to the development of an electrochemical assay for the synthetic opioid fentanyl [4] and subsequent translation to a glove-based wearable platform [5]. Challenges and future prospects for glove-based wearable electrochemical sensors will be discussed in relation to on-site chemical threat assessment applications.

A Study on the Activity and Training Plan of a Field Crew for the Design of Training Scenarios Assuming Chemical Accidents and Terrorism

This article is a study on the activity of rescue workers for designing simulation training scenarios assuming chemical accidents. On the basis of the complexity of the indoor scene in the case of chemical accidents and terrorism, we designed a 12-step simulation training scenario for two teams to analyze the improvement in firefighters’ capabilities. On the basis of activity measurement in the simulation scenario, step 2 of training had the most drops in the maximum heart rate, as follow: N1, from 163 bpm to 153 bpm; N2, from 186 bpm to 151 bpm; N3, from 168 bpm to 162 bpm; and N4, from 166 bpm to 152 bpm. In terms of intensity level in the allowable activity time, it was found that in step 2 both N1 and N2 reduced from Level 5 to Level 3, N3 remained at Level 4, N4 reduced from Level 4 to Level 3, and the maximum allowable activity time increased.

Protection equipment site selection for the traffic police force in the event of chemical terrorism

Protection equipment site selection for the traffic police force in the event of chemical terrorism

Global Characteristics of Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Poison Use in Terrorist Attacks.

Chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) terrorism continues to be a global threat. Studies examining global and historical toxicological characteristics of CBR terrorism are lacking. Global Terrorism Database (GTD) and RAND Database of Worldwide Terrorism Incidents (RDWTI) were searched for CBR terrorist attacks from 1970 through 2017. Events fulfilling terrorism and poisoning definitions were included. Variables of event date and location, event realization, poisonous agent type, poisoning agent, exposure route, targets, connected events, additional means of harm, disguise methods, poisonings, and casualties were analyzed along with time trends and data gaps. A total of 446 events of CBR terrorism were included from all world regions. A trend for increased number of events over time was observed (R2 = 0.727; coefficient = 0.511). In these attacks, 4,093 people lost their lives and 31,903 were injured. Chemicals were the most commonly used type of poison (63.5%). The most commonly used poisonous agents were acids (12.3%), chlorine or chlorine compounds (11.2%), riot control agents (10.8%), cyanides (5.8%), and Bacillus anthracis (4.9%). Occurrence of poisoning was confirmed in 208 events (46.6%). Most common exposure routes were skin, mucosa, or eye (57.2%) and inhalation (47.5%). Poison was delivered with additional means of harm in 151 events (33.9%) and in a disguised way in 214 events (48.0%), respectively. This study showed that CBR terrorism is an on-going and increasingly recorded global threat involving diverse groups of poisons with additional harmful mechanisms and disguise. Industrial chemicals were used in chemical attacks. Vigilance and preparedness are needed for future CBR threats.

Emerging Training Needs of Forensic Scientists: Addressing the Challenges of Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Disasters

In cases of chemical and biological terrorism, many citizens are injured which leads to great social impact. Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) detection in-service training for forensic teams is indispensable to incorporate expertise to address concerns on weapons of mass destruction. Forensic science laboratories around the world are determined to fight the changing face of crime in the rapidly advancing technical scenarios globally by continually upgrading its technical acumen and embracing new technologies in its domain. The mission of training of forensic scientists is to prepare nationally accepted guidelines for the forensic examination of CBRN related materials and residues.

Medical and biological consequences of terrorism in Russia and worldwide (2005-2018)

Relevance . Terrorist threats in the world are numerous, therefore biomedical consequences of terrorist attacks should be studied, along with their prevention. Intention . Analyze the biomedical consequences of terrorism in Russia and worldwide in 2005-2018 and calculate scientometric indicators of articles in the field of terrorism indexed in the Russian Science Index and Scopus. Methodology . The registered terrorist attacks and their biomedical consequences were studied in the world and in Russia according to the Global Terrorism Index, the EMERCOM and the Russian Ministry of Health. The abstract-bibliographic databases of the Russian Science Citation Index and Scopus were searched for journal scientific articles and whether these articles were considered relevant by readers. Results and Discussion. In 2005-2018 annually (8.1 ± 1.3) thousand terrorist attacks were registered in the world with (19.2 ± 3.4) thousand fatalities, including the terrorists themselves, and sanitary losses amounted to (25.4 ± 2.9) thousand people. In the period under study, these indicators tended to increase. On average, there were (2.4 ± 0.2) dead and (3.7 ± 0.4) injured per 1 terrorist attack in the world. The average annual economic damage from terrorism amounted to (51.7 ± 7.9) billion US dollars. According to the EMERCOM of Russia, in 2005-2017 (there were no terrorist attacks in 2018) 57 major terrorist attacks were recorded, in which 366 people were killed and 1717 people were injured. On average, 6-7 people died and 30 people were injured per 1 major terrorist attack. The ratio of dead and injured was 1 : 4.7. Over the same period, according to the Russian Ministry of Health, 1,100 terrorist attacks were recorded, in which 898 people died and 4,860 people were injured. On average, 1 person was killed and 4-5 people were injured per terrorist attack. The ratio of fatalities and injured was 1 : 5.4. A decrease in the number of terrorist attacks, irrevocable and sanitary losses is noted. Injured with extremely severe injuries due to terrorist attacks amounted to 8.1 %, severe - 18.2 %, moderate - 30.4 %, mild injuries - 43.4 %. Over time, there is a decrease in the proportion of extremely severe and severe conditions of injured, relative stabilization of the proportion of moderate conditions, and an increase in mild conditions. It is necessary to continue work on coordination of registration of emergencies in the EMERCOM of Russia and the Ministry of Health of Russia to improve reservation of funds to eliminate their consequences. The search in the Russian Science Citation Index and Scopus revealed 18,334 and 12,836 scientific articles, respectively, including 4,200 and 151 publications on biomedical consequences of terrorist attacks, over 2005-2018. There is a high demand for articles on the biomedical consequences of terrorism in Scopus: 81.5 % of publications were cited at least once, the average number of citations per article was 15.31. In the Russian Science Citation Index the scientometric indices were much smaller - 44.4 % and 1.70, respectively. Conclusion. The analysis of publications showed that use of medium and high power ionizing radiation sources, toxic chemical and biological agents in terrorist acts in the world is possible only if they are stolen from state organizations or if they are transferred by state organizations to third parties. At the same time, it should be noted that in the modern world, none of the countries, including Russia, can be recognized as adequately prepared to confront nuclear (radiological), chemical and biological terrorism. The most likely counteraction to such terrorist attacks are international conventions on the production, control and non-proliferation of highly toxic agents in the world. Databases of the Russian Science Index and Scopus open up great information to researchers on the study of terrorism. In addition to improving the innovative content of domestic articles, Russian scientists should include more citations from colleagues.