Division Of Chemistry Research Articles

Anode Catalyst Durability in Low Temperature Electrolysis and the Impact of Hydrogen Crossover

Anode Catalyst Durability in Low Temperature Electrolysis and the Impact of Hydrogen CrossoverShaun Alia,1 Kimberly S. Reeves,2 Haoran Yu,2 Elliot Padgett,1 Deborah Myers,3 David Cullen2 1 Chemical and Material Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 2 Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 3 Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IllinoisHydrogen has unique advantages as an energy carrier, with a high energy density and abilities for long term storage and conversion between electricity and chemical bonds. Although hydrogen currently has a significant role in transportation and agriculture, its use in energy consumption overall has been limited, particularly in the case of electrochemical water splitting. With decreasing electricity prices, electrolysis cost reductions can be achieved and allow for an opportunity for greater use.(1) While load-following renewable power sources can reduce feedstock cost, further cost reductions can be achieved by reducing the platinum group metal (PGM) content.(2) Efforts are needed to understand and mitigate electrolyzer degradation, particularly when accounting for lower PGM loadings and intermittent operation.Previous efforts have developed anode catalyst-specific accelerated stress tests for intermittent operation that focused on catalyst layer changes and interfacial loss with standard material sets. (3) Under cycled testing between open circuit and operating potentials, performance losses primarily appeared through kinetics and were accompanied by anode catalyst dissolution, migration, and interfacial tearing. Performance losses were further aggravated by a reduced anode catalyst loading or a thinner catalyst layer, an increase in cycling frequency, and an increase in cell potential.In this study, the impact of hydrogen crossover on anode catalyst durability during device shutdown was evaluated and found to significantly increase performance loss through catalyst reduction and higher dissolution kinetics when operation resumed. Large drops in kinetics accounted for the majority of cell performance changes and corresponded to increased anode catalyst migration and aggregation within the catalyst layer. Compared to intermittent operation, however, ohmic losses disproportionately grew and higher rates of interfacial tearing were found ex-situ, particularly when simulated shutdowns incorporated brief periods of water deprivation and drying. While various anode catalyst types were evaluated for their potential in materials mitigation, high loss rates were found in all cases. Sub-stoichiometric oxides may be a driver for performance losses due to increase subsurface metal dissolution once near-surface oxides are reduced. Understanding catalyst layer degradation and the impact of shutdowns is critical to developing catalyst- and device-level accelerated stress tests and forming operational mitigation strategies.[4][1] B. Pivovar, N. Rustagi and S. Satyapal, The Electrochemical Society Interface, 27, 47 (2018).[2] K. Ayers, N. Danilovic, R. Ouimet, M. Carmo, B. Pivovar and M. Bornstein, Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, 10, 219 (2019).[3] S. M. Alia, S. Stariha and R. L. Borup, J. Electrochem. Soc., 166, F1164 (2019).[4] Electron microscopy was performed at the Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, which is a DOE Office of Science User Facility.

Presence of Solvent Orange 60 and Solvent Red 179 in Eyeglass Frames and Temple Tips in Japan.

Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences [email protected] Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kawasaki, Japan The authors have no funding or conflicts of interest to declare.

An Interview with Professor Squire J. Booker: on Science and Diversity

Squire J. Booker is an Evan Pugh University Professor of Chemistry and of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at Pennsylvania State University (Penn State). He obtained a Ph.D. in biochemistry from MIT under Prof. JoAnne Stubbe. Prof. Booker’s research on radical-dependent enzymes has unraveled some mechanisms of antibiotic resistance and natural product biosynthesis, and he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2018. He is also an advocate for promoting diversity in science. He created and co-directs the Penn State Department of Chemistry Summer Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU) program, which allows 10 undergraduate students from the United States to conduct chemical research on the topic of “catalysis and motion” every year at Penn State. The program mainly recruits women, students from underrepresented groups, and students from universities and colleges that lack strong research infrastructure. Prof. Booker is also on the steering committee of the Annual Biomedical Research Conference for Minority Students (ABRCMS), one of the largest professional conferences for underrepresented students with over 5000 yearly attendees, and is the Chair of the ABRCMS Chemistry Division. Here, we learn about Prof. Booker’s trajectory in science, how he became a faculty member, and his efforts to increase diversity in science. This interview was edited for clarity.

Winners of the Inaugural 2021 IUPAC Analytical Chemistry Awards

Abstract In 2019, the IUPAC Analytical Chemistry Division established two awards:

William "Bill" Joseph Whelan, D.Sc., FRS November 14, 1924 to June 5, 2021.

William "Bill" Joseph Whelan, D.Sc., FRS November 14, 1924 to June 5, 2021.

Recognition and Sequestration of Toxic Inorganic Water Pollutants with Hydrolytically Stable Metal-Organic Frameworks.

Water pollution and crisis of freshwater is one of the most alarming concern globally, which threatens the development and survival of living beings. Recycling of contaminated water has been the prime demand of 21st century as the area of contamination in natural waterbodies increasing rapidly worldwide. Detoxification and purification of wastewater via adsorptive removal technology has been proven to be more efficient because of it's simplicity, lesser complexity and cost-effectiveness. As the most rapid-growing division of coordination chemistry, porous coordination polymers (PCPs) or metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with the liberty of crafting tailorable porous architecture and presence of numerous functional sites have become quintessential for recognition and sequestration of water pollutants. This personal account intends to highlight our recent contributions in the field of sensing and sequestration of toxic aquatic inorganic pollutants by functionalized water stable MOFs.

Med Chem Remote: The Frontiers in Medicinal Chemistry 2021.

Digital, but delicious! The Frontiers in Medicinal Chemistry 2021 meeting, originally intended to take place in Darmstadt, carried on as an online event from March 8-10 this year. Even with pandemic restrictions, the event co-presented by the Medicinal Chemistry Division of the German Chemical Society (GDCh), the German Pharmaceutical Society (DPhG), and the Swiss Chemical Society (SCS) proved to be a success, showcasing excellent speakers and facilitating participant interaction in an ingenious virtual setting. Over 350 participants from more than 10 countries gathered to discuss the latest trends and directions in medicinal chemistry, with sessions on molecular glues, covalent fragments, transient binding pockets and more. This report presents a summary of the key lectures and activities at the event.

Growth, Nutrient Uptake and Yield of Wheat as Influenced by Foliar Sprays of Cattle Urine and Nitrogen

The experiment was conducted to study the effect of levels of nitrogen and foliar sprays of cattle urine on growth, yield, nutrient uptake and quality of wheat in Inceptisol at Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry and Animal Husbandry and Dairy Science, College of Agriculture, Pune during Rabi (November) 2018. The experiment was conducted with three levels of nitrogen (0, 75 and 100%) through urea and five levels of cattle urine spray (CUS) (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10%) (20, 40 and 60 days after sowing (DAS)) replicated thrice in Factorial Completely Randomized Design.
 Application of 75% N through urea recorded higher plant height, number of tillers, number of functional leaves, leaf length, leaf width, chlorophyll content. However, application of 7.5% cattle urine foliar sprays (at 20, 40, 60 DAS) recorded significantly higher plant height, number of tillers, number of functional leaves, leaf length, leaf width, chlorophyll content. Further, similar both the treatments recorded significantly higher spike length, number of spikelets per spike, number of grains per spike, test weight of wheat. Interaction effect of 75% N through urea along with 7.5% cattle urine foliar sprays (at 20, 40, 60 DAS) recorded significantly higher plant height, number of tillers, number of functional leaves, leaf length, leaf width, chlorophyll content at 30, 50 and 70 DAS of wheat. Significant interaction effect with similar treatment were also recorded significant results for spike length, number of spikelets per spike, number of grains per spike, test weight of wheat.
 Application of 75% N through urea recorded significantly higher grain (80.03 g pot-1) and straw (100.00 g pot-1) yield of wheat. While foliar spray of cattle urine @ 5% recorded significantly higher grain (72.06 g pot-1) and straw (92.41 g pot-1) yield of wheat. Significant interaction effect among combine application of 75% N through urea along with foliar spray of cattle urine @ 7.5% taken at 20, 40 and 60 DAS reported significantly higher grain (87.67 g pot-1) and straw (114.50 g pot-1) yield of wheat.
 Nitrogen (3.08 gm pot-1), phosphorus (1.12 gm pot-1) and potassium (3.72 gm pot-1) uptake by wheat was found significantly higher with the application of 75% N through urea than 100% N application. While three foliar spray of cattle urine @7.5% taken at 20, 40 and 60 DAS recorded significantly nitrogen (3.15 gm pot-1), phosphorus (1.09 gm pot-1) and potassium (3.54 gm pot-1) uptake by wheat. But interaction effect for combined application was found non significant for the uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Effect of Soil Application of Cattle Urine and Nitrogen on Growth, Yield and Nutrient Uptake by Maize (Fodder) in Inceptisol

The experiment was conducted to study effect of soil application of cattle urine and nitrogen levels on growth, yield and nutrient uptake by maize (fodder) in Inceptisol at the Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry and Animal Husbandry and Dairy Science, College of Agriculture, Pune, during Kharif-2019. There were seven treatment viz., 1) Absolute control; 2) Recommended dose of fertilizers 100:50:50 kg ha-1 N, P2O5 and K2O; 3) General recommended dose of fertilizers 100:50:50 kg ha-1 N, P2O5 and K2O + FYM @ 5 t ha-1; 4) 25% RDN + 75% N through cattle urine + FYM @ 5 t ha-1; 5) 50% RDN + 50% N through cattle urine + + FYM @ 5 t ha-1; 6) 75% RDN + 25% N + FYM @ 5 t ha-1; 7) 100% N through cattle urine + FYM @ 5 t ha-1 and three replications in completely randomized design.
 Periodical plant height and number of functional leaves at 20, 40 and 60 DAS was found to be significantly higher with the soil application 50% RDN through urea + 50% N through cattle urine along with FYM @ 5 t ha-1. The magnitude of increase in the leaf area was found higher from 494 to 969 cm2 at 40 to 60 DAS than 20 to 40 DAS (203 to 494 cm2) with the application of 75% RDN through urea + 25% N through cattle urine + FYM @ 5 t ha-1. Soil application of 75% RDN through urea + 25% N through cattle urine with FYM @ 5 t ha-1 reported significantly higher chlorophyll in fodder maize. Soil application of 75% RDN through urea + 25% N through cattle urine + FYM @ 5 t ha-1 reported significantly higher nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, iron, zinc and copper uptake by fodder maize. Similar treatment also recorded significantly higher green fodder (984 g pot-1) and dry matter (423.11 g pot-1) yield of maize. Similar treatment also found superior for nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, iron, zinc and copper uptake by fodder maize.

Double-boiled linseed and mustard oil-based formulations to prepare oil-coated controlled release fertilizers

Controlled nutrient release is one of the best fertilizer management options to enhance nutrient recovery efficiency and minimize environmental pollution. The research was conducted at Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi during 2019-20 with the aims to formulate four oil-based formulations from different combinations of double-boiled linseed (Linum usitatissimum) and mustard (Brassica juncea) oils for coating diammonium phosphate (DAP) and to assess nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) release from them against uncoated DAP. Results revealed that oil-based formulation with 100 wt% linseed oil (Oil- 4 formulation) showed maximum variation in weight over the 30 days of curing; whereas, oil-based formulation containing 25 wt% linseed oil + 75 wt% mustard oil (Oil-1 formulation) had lowest variation in weight during curing. The N and P release pattern from oil-based formulations of coated DAP over 30 days in water medium with reference to uncoated DAP revealed that Oil-1 coated DAP formulation released lesser quantities of N and P than Oil-2 coated DAP; while 8% levels of coating material released lesser N and P than the 4% levels of coating. Compared to First-order kinetics model, the N and P release data were better fitted to Korsmeyer-Peppas model, which revealed that nutrient release from uncoated DAP followed Quasi-Fickian diffusion. Except 8%-Oil-2-DAP, all the oil-based formulations of coated DAP followed anomalous (Non-Fickian) diffusion. Thus, it may be concluded that double-boiled linseed and mustard oil-based formulations (Oil-1 formulation) of coated DAP could be an alternative option to produce cost effective controlled release fertilizers.

Back Cover: Structural and Spectroscopic Comparison of Soft‐Se vs. Hard‐O Donor Bonding in Trivalent Americium/Neodymium Molecules (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 17/2021)

Differential covalency in trivalent actinide versus lanthanide bonding with soft donors can aid separations. In their Research Article on page 9459, Enrique R. Batista, Andrew J. Gaunt, Ping Yang, and co-workers compare electronic structure and bonding with isoradial Am3+ and Nd3+ using hard O- and soft Se-donor ligands. The first structural characterization of molecular Am–Se bonding, along with spectroscopy and ab initio calculations, is used to evaluate f-orbital involvement for Am3+ versus Nd3+ and explain structural trends. Graphic designed by Josh Smith, Chemistry Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory.

Determination of boron in in-house graphite reference material by instrumental charged particle activation analysis

Due to high thermal neutron absorption cross-section, boron (B) content is a binding specification for nuclear grade graphite. Reliable analytical methods are essential to determine boron at trace to ultra-trace levels. Analytical Chemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India has prepared an in-house graphite reference material (GRM). A Charged particle activation analysis methodology has been developed for quantification of B in graphite matrix. Detection limit for boron using this methodology is 1.4 mg kg−1. This in-house GRM can be used for quantification of B in unknown graphite samples, validating existing analytical methods and for the development of new analytical methods.

Catalyst: Challenges in development of adsorbents for recovery of uranium from seawater

Sheng Dai is currently a section head of separations and polymer chemistry and a UT-Battelle Corporate Fellow at the Chemical Sciences Division of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and a professor of chemistry at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. He served as a national technical director for a US Department of Energy project aimed at recovering uranium from seawater (2010–2016). His current research interests include ionic liquids, porous materials, and their applications for separation sciences and energy storage, as well as catalysis by nanomaterials.

信州大学繊維学部化学・材料学科ファイバー材料工学コース 高橋伸英研究室

信州大学繊維学部化学・材料学科ファイバー材料工学コース 高橋伸英研究室

Phase-Controlled 1T Transition-Metal Dichalcogenide-Based Multidimensional Hybrid Nanostructures

Phase-Controlled 1T Transition-Metal Dichalcogenide-Based Multidimensional Hybrid Nanostructures

Congratulations to the 11 new academicians of the Chemistry Division, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Congratulations to the 11 new academicians of the Chemistry Division, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Reply to "Comment on 'Arresting an Unusual Amide Tautomer Using Divalent Cations'".

RETURN TO ISSUEPREVCommentNEXTReply to “Comment on ‘Arresting an Unusual Amide Tautomer Using Divalent Cations’”Somnath M. KashidSomnath M. KashidPhysical and Materials Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune 411008, IndiaAcademy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, IndiaMore by Somnath M. Kashid, Reman K. SinghReman K. SinghDepartment of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, IndiaMore by Reman K. Singh, Hyejin KwonHyejin KwonDepartment of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, KoreaMore by Hyejin Kwon, Jin Gyu SeolJin Gyu SeolDepartment of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, KoreaMore by Jin Gyu Seol, Yung Sam Kim*Yung Sam KimDepartment of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, Korea*Email: [email protected] (Y.S.K.).More by Yung Sam Kimhttp://orcid.org/0000-0001-6306-7438, Arnab Mukherjee*Arnab MukherjeeDepartment of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India*Email: [email protected] (A.M.).More by Arnab Mukherjeehttp://orcid.org/0000-0001-5691-6120, and Sayan Bagchi*Sayan BagchiPhysical and Materials Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune 411008, IndiaAcademy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India*Email: [email protected] (S.B.).More by Sayan Bagchihttp://orcid.org/0000-0001-6932-3113Cite this: J. Phys. Chem. B 2021, 125, 1, 479–483Publication Date (Web):December 10, 2020Publication History Received1 July 2020Revised23 November 2020Published online10 December 2020Published inissue 14 January 2021https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c06005Copyright © 2020 American Chemical SocietyRIGHTS & PERMISSIONSArticle Views912Altmetric-Citations-LEARN ABOUT THESE METRICSArticle Views are the COUNTER-compliant sum of full text article downloads since November 2008 (both PDF and HTML) across all institutions and individuals. These metrics are regularly updated to reflect usage leading up to the last few days.Citations are the number of other articles citing this article, calculated by Crossref and updated daily. Find more information about Crossref citation counts.The Altmetric Attention Score is a quantitative measure of the attention that a research article has received online. Clicking on the donut icon will load a page at altmetric.com with additional details about the score and the social media presence for the given article. Find more information on the Altmetric Attention Score and how the score is calculated. Share Add toView InAdd Full Text with ReferenceAdd Description ExportRISCitationCitation and abstractCitation and referencesMore Options Share onFacebookTwitterWechatLinked InReddit PDF (5 MB) Get e-AlertsSUBJECTS:Amides,Ketones,Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy,Infrared light,Molecular structure Get e-Alerts

DNA Methylation Abnormality and Brain Dysfunction of Neural Stem Cells Caused by Chronic Inflammation by Nanoparticle Exposure

The biological development of a human is an extremely complex and delicate process. It starts from fertilisation and continues until long after birth. The creation and development of the brain is particularly complicated and susceptible to disruptions to its progression. The primary cells responsible for the development of the brain are the neural stem cells. These are a broad class of cells that can differentiate into the wide range of cell types that form the adult brain. To achieve this complex process, different cells need to undergo a range of gene expression changes at the right time. This is delicate and its disturbance is a key cause of pathology in a wide range of diseases. There are many external factors that are known to disrupt neural development however, there are several common chemicals whose effects remain largely unknown. One such group are broadly described as nanoparticles. These are small particles that are being increasingly used by many industries as they can help in the creation of products with better properties. However, their effect on the environment and the human body – particularly that of a developing brain – have been largely unexamined. Associate Professor Ken Tachibana of the Division of Hygienic Chemistry, Sanyo-Onoda City University, Japan is researching the effects of nanoparticles on neural development.

Reaction Kinetics of Zn2+ with Radiolysis Products in Molten LiCl-KCl Eutectic

A thorough understanding of radiation effects on molten salt media is necessary to support the design, development, and deployment of molten salt reactor, using either fuel salt or solid fuel with salt as the coolant. Fundamental issues include the determination of the initial yields and reactivity of the primary radiolytic species, i.e., the solvated electron (esolv –), chlorine atom (Cl•), and dichloride radical anion (Cl2 •–) as their reactivity varies depending on the environment such as the salt cation and temperature. Here we report on the reaction kinetics for esolv – and Cl2 •– in molten LiCl-KCl eutectic doped with Zn2+ ions. Electron pulse radiolysis absorption spectroscopy was used to observe the transient behavior of esolv – and Cl2 •– on the nanosecond to microsecond time scale. Experiments were performed using the Brookhaven National Laboratory Laser-Electron Accelerator Facility (LEAF)1 and utilizing a recently developed high-temperature sample holder.2 Decay kinetics of of esolv – and Cl2 •– in 9.41 mM ZnCl2 in LiCl-KCl are shown in the figure. esolv – and Cl2 •– decays in different time scale due to different reaction kinetics and decay speed increase as temperature.This work was supported as part of the Molten Salts in Extreme Environments Energy Frontier Research Center, funded by the U.S. Department of Energy (US-DOE), Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences, at BNL, INL and ORNL under contracts DE-SC0012704, DE-AC07-05ID14517 and DE-FC02-04ER15533, respectively. The Laser Electron Accelerator Facility of the BNL Accelerator Center for Energy Research is supported by the US-DOE Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Chemical Sciences, Geosciences, and Biosciences under contract DE-SC0012704. Wishart, J. F.; Cook, A. R.; Miller, J. R.; Rev. Sci. Instrum., 2004, 75 (11), 4359.Phillips, W. C.; Layne, B.; Gakhar, R.; Horne, G. P.; Ramos-Ballesteros, A.; Iwamatsu, K.; LaVerne, J. A.; Pimblott, S. M.; Wishart, J. F.; Rev. Sci. Instrum., 2019, in peer review. Figure 1

(Invited) Stabilizing High-Nickel Content Layered Cathode Materials through Introducing Hierarchical Valence Gradient

Stabilizing high-nickel content layered cathode materials through introducing hierarchical valence gradient Ruoqian Lin1, Seongmin Bak1, Huolin L. Xin2, Xiao-Qing. Yang1,* 1 Chemistry Division, Brookhaven National Laboratory 2 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, IrvineHigh Ni-content layered oxide as cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries have attracted great research interest recently. Taking advantage of two-electron transfer per Ni by the Ni2+/Ni4+ redox, high-Ni-content cathode materials can potentially provide much higher capacity than traditional layered cathode materials such as LiCoO2 or Li Ni1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC333). However, the structure and surface instability of this type of materials renders poor capacity retention and thermal stability, which need to be addressed for this material to be used as lithium-ion battery cathode material for electric vehicles. To overcome all these challenges, we investigated a new type of secondary particle engineering that has a uniform Ni:Mn:Co 811 chemical composition throughout the particle but with the nickel oxidation state spatially changing from Ni2+ to Ni3+ along the radial direction of the particle from the surface to the center. The goal of this study is to understand how this new gradient structure slows down the performance deterioration and structural degradation of high-Ni-content materials. Also, this study will differentiate the effect of Ni valence gradience from the concentration gradience, which has been widely utilized to improve the surface and structural stability of high-Ni-content cathode materials. By combining in-situ/ex-situ multi-scale multi-probe characterization tool, including electron and synchrotron X-ray imaging and spectroscopy, the LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 with Ni valence gradience is investigated at multiple length scales. We found that nanopores and micro cracks are more favored to be formed in the center of the secondary particles rather than on the surfaces, which indicates that degradation could initiate from the center bulk rather than particle surfaces. It is also found that Ni valence gradience along the radial direction across the secondary particle is well retained during electrochemical cycling, which implies that lower valence state Ni on the surfaces can stabilize the material surfaces and mitigate the internal structure degradation. Time-resolved in-situ thermal stability studies show that, compared with regular LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 materials, introducing Ni valence gradience greatly enhances the thermal stability and prohibits oxygen release related thermal runaway. It is also found that calcination atmosphere is one of the key factors that can tune the chemical hierarchical structure of high-Ni-content cathode materials, which provides valuable guidance for future material design and scaling up synthesis. Acknowledgement The work done at Brookhaven National Laboratory was supported by the Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Vehicle Technology Office of the U.S. DOE through the Advanced Battery Materials Research (BMR) Program, including Battery500 Consortium under contract No. DE-SC0012704. This research used the National Synchrotron Light Source II and the Center for Functional Nano-materials (CFN), U.S. DOE Office of Science User Facilities operated for the DOE Office of Science by Brookhaven National Laboratory under Contract No. DE-SC0012704. Thework done by UCI was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) under the Award Number: DE-EE0008444. Dr. Y. Shin was supported by the Office of Vehicle Technologies of the U.S. Department of Energy under contract number DE-AC02-06CH11357.