Chemical Pollution Research Articles

Hybridization in the Anthropocene - how pollution and climate change disrupt mate selection in freshwater fish.

Chemical pollutants and/or climate change have the potential to break down reproductive barriers between species and facilitate hybridization. Hybrid zones may arise in response to environmental gradients and secondary contact between formerly allopatric populations, or due to the introduction of non-native species. In freshwater ecosystems, field observations indicate that changes in water quality and chemistry, due to pollution and climate change, are correlated with an increased frequency of hybridization. Physical and chemical disturbances of water quality can alter the sensory environment, thereby affecting chemical and visual communication among fish. Moreover, multiple chemical compounds (e.g. pharmaceuticals, metals, pesticides, and industrial contaminants) may impair fish physiology, potentially affecting phenotypic traits relevant for mate selection (e.g. pheromone production, courtship, and coloration). Although warming waters have led to documented range shifts, and chemical pollution is ubiquitous in freshwater ecosystems, few studies have tested hypotheses about how these stressors may facilitate hybridization and what this means for biodiversity and species conservation. Through a systematic literature review across disciplines (i.e. ecotoxicology and evolutionary biology), we evaluate the biological interactions, toxic mechanisms, and roles of physical and chemical environmental stressors (i.e. chemical pollution and climate change) in disrupting mate preferences and inducing interspecific hybridization in freshwater fish. Our study indicates that climate change-driven changes in water quality and chemical pollution may impact visual and chemical communication crucial for mate choice and thus could facilitate hybridization among fishes in freshwater ecosystems. To inform future studies and conservation management, we emphasize the importance of further research to identify the chemical and physical stressors affecting mate choice, understand the mechanisms behind these interactions, determine the concentrations at which they occur, and assess their impact on individuals, populations, species, and biological diversity in the Anthropocene.

The impact of chemical pollution across major life transitions: a meta-analysis on oxidative stress in amphibians.

Among human actions threatening biodiversity, the release of anthropogenic chemical pollutants which have become ubiquitous in the environment, is a major concern. Chemical pollution can induce damage to macromolecules by causing the overproduction of reactive oxygen species, affecting the redox balance of animals. In species undergoing metamorphosis (i.e. the vast majority of the extant animal species), antioxidant responses to chemical pollution may differ between pre- and post-metamorphic stages. Here, we meta-analysed (N = 104 studies, k = 2283 estimates) the impact of chemical pollution on redox balance across the three major amphibian life stages (embryo, tadpole, adult). Before metamorphosis, embryos did not experience any redox change while tadpoles activate their antioxidant pathways and do not show increased oxidative damage from pollutants. Tadpoles may have evolved stronger defences against pollutants to reach post-metamorphic life stages. In contrast, post-metamorphic individuals show only weak antioxidant responses and marked oxidative damage in lipids. The type of pollutant (i.e. organic versus inorganic) has contrasting effects across amphibian life stages. Our findings show a divergent evolution of the redox balance in response to pollutants across life transitions of metamorphosing amphibians, most probably a consequence of differences in the ecological and developmental processes of each life stage.

Applications of Escherichia Coli Esterases for Bioremediation and Treatment of Wastewater Organic Chemical Pollutants

This study used computational techniques, including 3D enzyme structural modeling and molecular docking, to gain insight into the bioremediation of organic wastewater contaminants using E. coli esterase enzymes. Furthermore, a total of 24 wastewater organic chemicals belonging to different categories, such as pharmaceuticals, artificial sweeteners, pesticides/herbicides, endocrine disrupting chemicals, and persistent organic pollutants, were identified through the toxicology database. Comparative genetics and reported literature. Furthermore, 3D PDB and AlphaFold structures of 194 esterase enzymes from E. coli were retrieved by first identifying a common domain (Alpha Beta hydrolase domain) using the InterPro database. Molecular docking of esterase enzymes and pollutants was used, resulting in the best binding enzymes to their respective organic wastewater pollutants, including bezafibrate which showed the best binding with all enzymes ranging from -6.33 kcal/mol to -9.87 kcal/mol . Subsequently, the majority of the ligands (organic wastewater pollutants) reacted with enzymes such as the ORFC-like enzymes, which were computationally annotated in this study for the first time, yuaR (strain K12), menH (strain ETI89/UPEC), and menH (strain O157). :H7) has significant binding affinities and consists of a common Alpha Beta hydrolasefold-1 domain. This suggests that esterase enzymes containing the Alpha Beta hydrolasefold-1 domain may be involved in the efficient degradation of organic wastewater pollutants.

Does copper contamination change thermotaxis of the soil arthropod Folsomia candida (Collembola)?

Behavioural thermoregulation (thermotaxis) is essential for soil invertebrates to evade thermal extremes in terrestrial environments. Extensive and continuous use of copper (Cu) based products has led to elevated Cu concentration in soils across the globe and in some areas reaching concentrations that are hazardous to soil invertebrates. We hypothesised that environmental stressors, for example, exposure to heavy metals may compromise the adaptive behavioural thermoregulation of organisms, but very little is known of such interactions. In this study, we chose Cu as a model toxicant and investigated the potential effect of Cu-contaminated soils on the behavioural thermoregulation of springtails (Folsomia candida). We measured the distribution of springtails when placed on a temperature gradient ranging from 6 to 46 °C and estimated their thermal preference as an indicator of behavioural thermoregulation. Results showed that within 60 min of being introduced to the thermal gradient, the distribution of springtails was unimodal with slight skewness towards high temperature. Springtails exhibited a consistent preferred temperature range of approximately 21–23 °C across all Cu exposure levels and time points. However, Cu contamination increased the frequency of springtails recorded along the gradient where temperature was above 30 °C. We interpreted this observation as Cu-exposed animals having an elevated risk of entering heat coma and not being able to evade noxious temperatures. We conclude that Cu contamination does not alter the thermal preference of F. candida but compromises their ability to tolerate extreme high temperature. Incorporating behavioural responses into ecotoxicological assessments provides ecologically relevant insights into the impacts of chemical pollution on soil ecosystems.

Estimation of the risk of chemical pollution with polychlorinated biphenyls of the transformer station in the city of Ciadâr-Lunga

The paper presents the results of the study of the content of polychlorinated biphenyls in soil and sediment samples taken from the high-power transformer station in the city of Ciadâr-Lunga, as well as the impact of these contaminants on different organisms. Chromatographic analysis established the presence of polychlorinated biphenyls in all analyzed samples, ΣBPC ranging from 143.6 mg/kg to 1671.3 mg/kg. Polychlorinated biphenyls showed various side effects on the tested organisms: from unobservable (species Eisenia fetida and Helix pomatia) to lethal (species: Daphnia magna and Phyllobius urticae).

Expression of Concern: Investigating the use of Polymers for eliminating the Petroleum pollutants via Molecular Dynamics method: Analyze the interaction between the formaldehyde as a commonly chemical pollutant and the polypropylene

Expression of Concern: Investigating the use of Polymers for eliminating the Petroleum pollutants via Molecular Dynamics method: Analyze the interaction between the formaldehyde as a commonly chemical pollutant and the polypropylene

Generative discovery of safer chemical alternatives using diffusion modeling: A case study in green solvent design for cyclohexane/benzene extractive distillation

Over the past century, advancements in chemistry have significantly propelled human innovation, enhancing both industrial and consumer products. However, this rapid progression has resulted in chemical pollution increasingly surpassing planetary boundaries, as production and release rates have outpaced our monitoring capabilities. To catalyze more impactful efforts, this study transitions from traditional chemical assessment to inverse chemical design, introducing a generative graph latent diffusion model aimed at discovering safer alternatives. In a case study on the design of green solvents for cyclohexane/benzene extraction distillation, we constructed a design database encompassing functional, environmental hazards, and process constraints. Virtual screening of previous design dataset revealed distinct trade-off trends between these design requirements. Based on the screening outcomes, an unconstrained generative model was developed, which covered a broader chemical space and demonstrated superior capabilities for structural interpolation and extrapolation. To further optimize molecular generation towards desired properties, a multi-objective latent diffusion method was applied, yielding 19 candidate molecules. Of these, 7 were identified in PubChem as the most viable green solvent candidates, while the remaining 12 as potential novel candidates. Overall, this study effectively designed green solvent candidates for safer and more sustainable industrial production, setting a promising precedent for the development of environmentally friendly alternatives in other areas of chemical research.

Evaluation of the Effects of Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on Caenorhabditis elegans Survival and Fertility.

Di-2-ethylhexyl (DEHP), which is widely used in industrial products, is produced annually in excess of 2 million tons worldwide. DEHP is an endocrine disruptor and one of the major environmental pollutant chemicals (EDCs) in nature. There is some information about the effects of these products, which provide great advantages in every respect, on human health and the environment. In this study, C. elegans organism was used to evaluate the health and environmental risks of DEHP. The survival and fertility effects of DEHP on the C. elegans organism were examined and the results were evaluated. In the study, it was determined that DEHP not only shortened the survival time of C. elegans but also caused a decrease in fertility. DEHP (0.625mM and 10mM) caused a 23.2-30.6% decrease in fertility. Additionally, the LC50 (50% lethal concentration) value of DEHP was found to be 321µg/mL.

Health Risk Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals in Wheat Flour from Iran Markets: Application of Monte Carlo Simulation Approach.

The significance of flour in the Iranian diet underscores the need to ensure its safety from chemical pollutants. This study aimed to evaluate the potential health risks posed by certain heavy metals, such as Fe, Zn, Cu, Al, Co, Hg, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cd, in wheat flour available in the Iranian market. A total of 248 flour samples were collected from 11 provinces in Iran during the winter of 2021. The health risks associated with heavy metals in children and adults were evaluated using USEPA health risk assessment guidance for superfund part A and Monte Carlo Simulation. The average concentration of Fe, Zn, Cu, Al, Co, Hg, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cd, was equal to 30.62 ± 59.24, 4.94 ± 13.64, 1.24 ± 3.08, 2.85 ± 4.98, 0.03 ± 0.01, 0.12 ± 0.03, 1.42 ± 1, 0.23 ± 0.05, 1.71 ± 0.65, and 0.02 ± 0.004mg/kg dry weight, respectively. Analysis of Fe, Cr, Al, Hg and Cr in all flour samples showed that the average concentration of these metals were greater than the standards levels set by the WHO/FAO. The results of the non-carcinogenic risks (HI) showed that the hazard index values (children: 0.969 ± 1.04, adult: 0.837 ± 0.905) of heavy metals through the consumption of flour to both study population were acceptable. The results of the carcinogenic risks (CR) based on Cd, and Pb concentration showed that the CR values from ingestion of flour to the children and adults population were 1.45 × 10-5 ± 5.08 × 10-5 and 1.26 × 10-5 ± 4.40 × 10-5, respectively. The results of Monte Carlo simulation showed that conventional deterministic health risk evaluation could overestimate risk outcomes. Likewise, Cr has 68.8% and 69.1% probability of non-carcinogenic risk to children and adult, respectively, and 80% and 79.8% probability of CR for adults and children respectively for Pb, suggesting that Cr and Pb is a priority control heavy metals. Therefore, it is recommended to continuously monitor the levels of heavy metals in wheat and its derived food products to ensure food safety.

Current insights into environmental acetochlor toxicity and remediation strategies.

Acetochlor is a selective pre-emergent herbicide that is widely used to control annual grass and broadleaf weeds. However, due to its stable chemical structure, only a small portion of acetochlor exerts herbicidal activity in agricultural applications, while most of the excess remains on the surfaces of plants or enters ecosystems, such as soil and water bodies, causing harm to the environment and human health. In recent years, researchers have become increasingly focused on the repair of acetochlor residues. Compared with traditional physical and chemical remediation methods, microorganisms are the most effective way to remediate chemical pesticide pollution, such as acetochlor, because of their rich species, wide distribution, and diverse metabolic pathways. To date, researchers have isolated and identified many high-efficiency acetochlor-degrading strains, such as Pseudomonas oleovorans, Klebsiella variicola, Bacillus subtilus, Rhodococcus, and Methylobacillus, among others. The microbial degradation pathways of acetochlor include dechlorination, hydroxylation, N-dealkylation, C-dealkylation, and dehydrogenation. In addition, the microbial enzymes, including hydrolase (ChlH), debutoxylase (Dbo), and monooxygenase (MeaXY), responsible for acetochlor biodegradation are also being investigated. In this paper, we review the migration law of acetochlor in the environment, its toxicity to nontarget organisms, and the main metabolic methods. Moreover, we summarize the latest progress in the research on the microbial catabolism of acetochlor, including the efficient degradation of microbial resources, biodegradation metabolic pathways, and key enzymes for acetochlor degradation. At the end of the article, we highlight the existing problems in the current research on acetochlor biodegradation, provide new ideas for the remediation of acetochlor pollution in the environment, and propose future research directions.

Selection Polluting Chemicals by Primarily Environmental Properties, and Secondary by Toxicity

Selection Polluting Chemicals by Primarily Environmental Properties, and Secondary by Toxicity

Assessing ecological impacts of agricultural practices using frogs as bioindicators

Abstract. Kurnianto AS, Kusumawati A, Widjayanthi L, Wulanjari D, Ibanah I, Majid MAA, Puspitasari DA, Priambodo B. 2024. Assessing ecological impacts of agricultural practices using frogs as bioindicators. Biodiversitas 25: 3208-3215. The rapid intensification of agriculture, driven by the increasing global demand for food, heavily relies on chemical inputs like pesticides and synthetic fertilizers. While these practices enhance production, they pose significant challenges to ecological balance and environmental health. Biomonitoring efforts have been developed to detect and evaluate the chemical pollutants' impact on the environment, employing species like the rice field frog (Fejervarya limnocharis Gravenhorst 1829) as bioindicators. This study aimed to assess the reliability of rice field frogs' liver gravimetry and morphology as biomonitoring tools using various analytical methods. Samples were collected from rice fields managed both organically and conventionally to analyze liver weight, individual weight, and Snout-Vent Length (SVL). This analysis was conducted to understand the environmental effects on these physiological parameters. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences between the two management practices, indicating environmental conditions notably influence the frogs' physiological parameters, highlighting their potential as bioindicators for chemical pollutants. The findings underscore the need for further research to optimize biomonitoring methods for sustaining environmental health and agricultural practices. This study contributes to the development of more sophisticated and effective biomonitoring methods, supporting sustainable agricultural practices and environmental mitigation strategies.

Biomonitoring of Pesticides in the Reservoirs of the Saratov Region

An assessment of the circulation of pesticides in the Saratov region was carried out. A list of pesticides that pose a potential hazard to public health as a result of chemical pollution of water bodies and aquatic organisms consumed by humans has been determined. It is proposed to use satellite images of the terrain located in the drainage basin area in order to justify the sampling points from surface water household supplies potentially contaminated with pesticides. The methodological aspects of the use of a multicomponent biotest system in establishing the toxicity of pesticides are considered. It is concluded that when arranging the biotesting to assess the toxicity of water and sediment samples containing pesticides in concentrations up to 10 MAC, it is recommended to use aquatic organisms with a minimally developed detoxification system.

Interactions between phenanthrene exposure and historical chemical stress: Implications for fitness and ecological resilience of the sentinel species Daphnia magna

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) arise from incomplete combustion of oil, coal, and gasoline, with lipophilic properties facilitating their widespread distribution and persistence. Due to their biochemical attributes, PAHs can accumulate in animal tissues, potentially causing mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Since the industrial revolution, PAH concentrations in the environment have risen, with lakes showing levels from 0.159 to 33,090 μg/kg sediment. Despite acute toxicity studies showing adverse effects on freshwater organisms, the long-term impacts and synergistic interactions with other pollutants remain largely unexplored.This study investigates the impact of phenanthrene (PHE), a prominent PAH found in aquatic environments, on Daphnia magna, a species of significant ecological importance in freshwater ecosystems globally, being both a sentinel species for chemical pollution and a keystone organism in freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Leveraging the dormancy of D. magna, which spans decades or even centuries, we exposed strains with diverse histories of chemical contaminant exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of PHE. Initially, acute exposure experiments were conducted in accordance with OECD guidelines across 16 Daphnia strains, revealing substantial variation in acute toxic responses, with strains naïve to chemical pollutants showing the lowest toxicity. Utilizing the median effect concentration EC10 derived from acute exposures, we assessed the impacts of chronic PHE exposure on life history traits and ecological endpoints of the 16 strains. To elucidate how historical exposure to other environmental stressors may modulate the toxicity of PHE, temporal populations of D. magna resurrected from a lake with a well-documented century-spanning history of environmental impact were utilized. Our findings demonstrate that PHE exposure induces developmental failure, delays sexual maturation, and reduces adult size in Daphnia. Populations of Daphnia historically exposed to chemical stress exhibited significantly greater fitness impacts compared to naïve populations. This study provides crucial insights into the augmented effects of PAHs interacting with other environmental stressors.

A facile cellulosic paper-based colorimetric sensor for detection of perchlorate using albumin-conjugated gold nanoparticles

Perchlorate, a prevalent and dangerous contaminant, is being increasingly found in untreated wastewater from urban areas and industrial discharges, as well as in unmonitored surface and groundwater sources. The urgent need for the creation of straightforward, efficient, and environmentally friendly sensing techniques to detect perchlorate in water. Cellulosic paper-based sensors show great promise as sustainable tools for detecting chemical pollutants. The study aimed to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of a paper-based sensor for detecting perchlorate levels in water samples. The approach showcased a reliable perchlorate colorimetric detection method, integrating digital smartphone imagery with paper-based sensors. The sensor employs a colorimetric assay that relies on the modification of gold nanoparticles with egg albumin protein, a material derived from biological sources. A digital smartphone facilitates on-site colorimetric data collection, and image processing methods are used to determine the presence of perchlorate in water samples based on these digital pictures. The grayscale color intensity derived from digital images is utilized for quantitative analysis. Comprehensive parametric evaluations were conducted to examine the stability and selectivity of the color intensities obtained from the sensor. The limits of detection and quantification are established at 2.86 µg/L and 9.55 µg/L, respectively. This study delivers a facile, highly sensitive, and cost-effective technique for the detection of perchlorate, particularly advantageous in industrial and rural settings where advanced detection devices are scarce.

Exposome Profiling of Environmental Pollutants in Seminal Plasma and Novel Associations with Semen Parameters.

Indicators of male fertility are in decline globally, but the underlying causes, including the role of environmental exposures, are unclear. This study aimed to examine organic chemical pollutants in seminal plasma, including both known priority environmental chemicals and less studied chemicals, to identify uncharacterized male reproductive environmental toxicants. Semen samples were collected from 100 individuals and assessed for sperm concentration, percent motility, and total motile sperm. Targeted and nontargeted organic pollutant exposures were measured from seminal plasma using gas chromatography, which showed widespread detection of organic pollutants in seminal plasma across all exposure classes. We used principal component pursuit (PCP) on our targeted panel and derived one component (driven by etriadizole) associated with total motile sperm (p < 0.001) and concentration (p = 0.03). This was confirmed by the exposome-wide association models using individual chemicals, where etriadizole was negatively associated with total motile sperm (FDR q = 0.01) and concentration (q = 0.07). Using PCP on 814 nontargeted spectral peaks identified a component that was associated with total motile sperm (p = 0.001). Bayesian kernel machine regression identified one principal driver of this association, which was analytically confirmed to be N-nitrosodiethylamine. These findings are promising and consistent with experimental evidence showing that etridiazole and N-nitrosodiethylamine may be reproductive toxicants.

Advancing nanoarchitectures of 2D WO3/MXene photoanode for enhanced photoelectrocatalytic oxidation of phenol and arsenic in synthetic wastewater

The photoelectrocatalytic advanced oxidation process (PEAOP) necessitates high-performing and stable photoanodes for the effective oxidation of complex pollutants in industrial wastewater. This study presents the construction of 2D WO3/MXene heteronanostructures for the development of efficient and stable photoanode. The WO3/MXene heterostructure features well-ordered WO3 photoactive sites anchored on micron-sized MXene sheets, providing an increased visible light active catalytic surface area and enhanced electrocatalytic activities for pollutant oxidation. Phenol, a highly toxic compound, was completely oxidized at an applied potential of 0.8 V vs. RHE under visible light irradiation. Systematic optimization of operational conditions for the photoelectrocatalytic oxidation of phenol was conducted. The phenol oxidation mechanism was elucidated via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis and the identification of intermediate compounds. Additionally, a mixed model of phenol and arsenic (III) in polluted water demonstrated the capability of WO3/MXene photoanode for the simultaneous oxidation of both organic and inorganic pollutants, achieving complete conversion of phenol and As(III) to non-toxic As(V). The WO3/MXene photoanode facilitated water oxidation, generating a substantial amount of O2•– and •OH oxidative species, which are crucial for the concurrent oxidation of phenol and arsenic. Recyclability tests demonstrated a 99% retention of performance, confirming the WO3/MXene photoanode's suitability for long-term operation in PEAOPs. The findings suggest that integrating WO3/MXene photoanodes into water purification systems can enhance economic feasibility, reduce energy consumption, and improve efficiency. This PEAOP offers a viable solution to the critical issue of heavy metal and organic chemical pollution in various water bodies, given its scalability and ability to preserve ecosystems while conserving clean water resources.

Risk factors for diminished ovarian reserve in women: Current state of the problem

Ovarian reserve is the basis of female fertility. The main markers of ovarian reserve are the level of anti-Mullerian hormone and the number of antral follicles. In addition to the natural age-related loss of follicles, many women experience a premature diminished ovarian reserve associated with a number of factors. This can be caused by both various diseases and environmental factors, lifestyle, and social aspects.The aim of this review was to examine the influence of external factors on the ovarian reserve and women fertility. A systematic analysis of data from modern scientific literature, domestic and foreign sources was carried out. The search involved such resources as PubMed, MEDLINE, Science Direct, eLibrary, Scopus, Cyberleninka. A detailed analysis of the influence of environmental pollution, lifestyle (sleep, nutrition, physical activity), previous surgeries, bad habits, obesity, psychological and social factors on the ovarian reserve and reproductive function of women was carried out. Significantly diminished ovarian reserve was noted with low sleep quality, excessive physical activity, and an unbalanced diet poor with animal proteins. Regular consumption of alcohol, smoking and exposure to certain chemical environmental pollutants cause premature follicle apoptosis and the onset of menopause. Circadian dysrhythmia, chronic stress and obesity can lead to the ovarian menstrual cycle disorders and the development of infertility in women. Previous parovarium surgeries are a significant risk factor for diminished ovarian reserve. Further population-based studies are needed to determine the precise mechanisms of influence of various factors on female fertility.

Bacteriological and Physicochemical Analysis of Water from Different Sources in a Rural Community of Jos South Local Government Area (LGA), Plateau State, Nigeria

Surface and underground water polluted by microbes and chemicals exacerbates issues of water scarcity, given its importance to all life forms. This study investigated the impact of microbial and chemical pollution from water sources in the K-Vom community in Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State, Nigeria. Four water samples from various sources underwent bacteriological and physicochemical analyses following the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standard guidelines to assess their quality. Escherichia coli emerged as the predominant organism, with tap water showing the lowest contamination levels and well water, particularly from Angwan Madugu, displaying the highest bacterial counts. Physicochemical parameters generally met WHO standards, except for Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Nitrates (Means: 0.14mg/L, 74.9mg/L) which exceeded recommended limits. Statistical analysis revealed non-significant differences for TSS, Nitrates, and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), suggesting overall compliance with international guidelines. Despite meeting certain standards, local water sources remain unfit for consumption due to bacterial contamination. Consequently, the study recommends the implementation of simple water treatment measures to mitigate health risks associated with waterborne diseases, emphasizing the urgent need for improved water quality management in the region.

Guardians under Siege: Exploring Pollution's Effects on Human Immunity.

Chemical pollution poses a significant threat to human health, with detrimental effects on various physiological systems, including the respiratory, cardiovascular, mental, and perinatal domains. While the impact of pollution on these systems has been extensively studied, the intricate relationship between chemical pollution and immunity remains a critical area of investigation. The focus of this study is to elucidate the relationship between chemical pollution and human immunity. To accomplish this task, this study presents a comprehensive review that encompasses in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies, shedding light on the ways in which chemical pollution can modulate human immunity. Our aim is to unveil the complex mechanisms by which environmental contaminants compromise the delicate balance of the body's defense systems going beyond the well-established associations with defense systems and delving into the less-explored link between chemical exposure and various immune disorders, adding urgency to our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and their implications for public health.