CBRN Research Articles

Self-Powered Handwritten Letter Recognition Based on a Masked Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Intelligent Personal Protective Equipment.

As one of the most important ways of human-machine interfaces, the touchpad has excellent input convenience. Input devices for extreme environments require simpler structures and diverse inputs to ensure information inputs. This paper proposed a self-powered flexible input panel with single-channel output for the input recognition of all 26 letters, and a paper mask was implemented to cover the triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) board and obtain more complicated electrical signal features. Based on the change of the triboelectric output of the mask, neural network models with different combinations of layers were designed and optimized, and the highest recognition rate of 88.7% for all letters and 100% recognition accuracy for some letters were achieved among the five testers. For letters with low recognition rates, a specific writing specification was further proposed to improve the accuracy of model recognition. These results facilitate the application of the proposed input panel as a flexible wearable device and personal protective equipment for extreme environments including chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear (CBRN) scenarios or aerospace.

Advancing early detection of biological events by digital holographic microscopy and simulation of microorganisms

There is a global need to advance bio-aerosol sensing for CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear) applications by compact and cost-effective devices. Employing digital holographic microscopy (DHM) and deep learning, we developed a system called HoloZcan to automate the analysis of airborne microbial pathogens and particles. DHM provides valuable information, but obtaining data from biological specimens for robust investigations is challenging. This paper introduces a custom simulation approach using the open-source software Meep and the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method to overcome limitations of existing Mie-based simulators, especially when dealing with complex microbial shapes. The simulation tool enables the modelling of specific microorganisms, offering a safer and more flexible alternative for CBRN research by bypassing ethical and logistical constraints associated with live pathogens. The study details the simulation workflow, built upon the construction of a database of optical properties of biological materials, for realistic simulations of light-microbe interactions. Evaluations on homogeneous and non-homogeneous objects demonstrate the tool’s limited intrinsic errors and superior sensitivity to refractive index changes compared to traditional Mie-based simulations. This work significantly advances our capability to accurately simulate and analyse CBRN-related scenarios, enhancing comprehensive research in bio-aerosol sensing.Graphical abstract

Intersection of CBRN, military forensic science, and counterterrorism

The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan required that forensic science was used beyond the traditional law enforcement and criminal justice goals and applied to military operations. The 9/11 terror attacks in the United States (US) inspired further attacks in the Western World and highlighted the importance of national and international intelligence sharing for counterterrorism operations. Following the 9/11 attacks, anthrax was disseminated in the US mail system, demonstrating a successful modern use of biological agents. As a result, nations enhanced their Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) capabilities to prevent, prepare, respond, and recover from CBRN attacks but in the last decade, there has been a decrease in capabilities across military forensic science, counterterrorism, and CBRN. Recent changes in the global and strategic environment such as, the war in the Ukraine, the threat of grey zone conflicts (below the threshold of war) such as the conflict in the Middle East, and strategic competition, indicates international, national, state and local CBRN capabilities need to be reinvigorated in a world under digital transformations. There is a need for a harmonized approach to enhance the integration of military, law enforcement, and CBRN operations to support decision-making. In this paper, we look back to where we have come from and where we are now to make recommendations on where to from here for military forensic science and counterterrorism, including CBRN which intersects both of these systems.

The Place and Approaches of Family Medicine Doctors in the Health Management of CBRN Events: The Case of Türkiye

In this study, it was aimed to determine the level of knowledge of Family Medicine residents about Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) events, their risk assessments and their thoughts on the roles that CBRN events can play in healthcare services. As a multi-center and cross-sectional analytical study, 444 family medicine residents at the national level were included in the study via an online survey application method. The data form included a total of 25 questions prepared to evaluate the sociodemographic information of the participants and their evaluation, awareness, knowledge level, approach to events and general opinions regarding CBRN event risks. 91.7% of physicians evaluated their knowledge level as "very little" or "little" and 95.7% evaluated their preparation level as "very little" or "little". 77.3% of physicians think that family physicians should have a role in CBRN incidents. For a possible CBRN event in the next 5 years, physicians predict biological events as the highest risk and nuclear events as the lowest risk. The rate of physicians who stated that they had previously received CBRN training was 17.8%, and the rate of those who participated in the CBRN drill was only 0.9%. While 89.9% of the participants wanted to receive training on health management in CBRN incidents; 80.2% want the training to be included in the specialty curriculum. While the participants' level of knowledge about the symptoms that may develop after a CBRN event is high, when asked about the awareness of CBRN risks around their institutions, 79.3% of physicians stated that they were not aware. It was determined that the level of knowledge, preparation, training, practice and awareness of family physicians regarding CBRN events was low. On the other hand, their willingness to receive training and their belief that they had a role in CBRN incidents were found to be high. According to the data of our study, we evaluate that there is a need for institutional structuring against CBRN risks, including primary health care services, and we suggest that CBRN training modules should be included in specialty curricula, starting from medical faculties.

Preparedness and emergency response strategies for chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear emergencies in disaster management: A qualitative systematic review

AbstractDisaster management, mainly related to chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) incidents, is a critical field that requires constant evaluation to improve preparedness and response strategies. This review synthesises evidence on global health sector strategies for CBRN preparedness, gathering lessons to enhance policymaking for future response and readiness. This review included original English and French research addressing healthcare preparedness for CBRN threats. Database searches, such as EBSCO, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Ovid, Lissa, and Santécom, were conducted until November 2022. The Joanna Briggs Institute's tools were utilised to assess the risk of bias. Al‐Raayan® and Nvivo® version 12 software were employed for the review and analysis. 57 articles in English and 6 in French met the inclusion criteria. The analysis identified numerous strategies, concentrating on chemical and biological incidents (Chemical and biological bioterrorism: n = 27; Epidemics and Outbreak: n = 15). “Hospitals”, “responsibility”, and “health” emerged as prominent keywords, emphasising institutional roles and health outcomes in CBRN incidents preparedness. Key findings highlighted the need for a unified global definition of bioterrorism to align international efforts. Hospital‐level initiatives were emphasised as the foundation for national preparedness, emphasising specialised training, community engagement, and robust coordination mechanisms. Geographical variability in response strategies was noted, necessitating a harmonised global approach. Continuous research, epidemic management, and addressing radiological/nuclear threats emerged as crucial elements. Among others, strategies defined under “Emergency Response Preparedness” and “Intersectoral Policy Development” outlined comprehensive preparedness contexts for CBRN incidents. The review suggests an imperative shift towards building collaborative networks and enhancing health sector operational readiness to mitigate the impacts of CBRN incidents.

Designing and Testing Multilayer Structures for CBR Air Permeable Protective Suit, with Improved Thermal Burden

Abstract Protection is crucial not only for ensuring the safety of military personnel and other professionals regularly exposed to various threats but also for the broader population. Globally, the development of new protective gear focuses on several key objectives: minimizing stress during the use of personal protective equipment, providing reactive and extended protection (such as through filtered and air-permeable structures that guard against a wide range of CBR/TIC threats), and developing intelligent protective equipment that incorporates detection, self-decontamination, and revitalization functions. Given the diversity of threats that specialized anti-terrorism units face, particularly in chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) domains, it is imperative that they are equipped with effective CBRN protection. Within the framework of strategic, operational, and tactical security measures, CBRN Defense is recognized by NATO as a distinct and critical area. Consistent with the standards of NATO and the specific regulations of the Romanian Army, every member of the NATO/national forces is required to be equipped with an air-permeable CBR protective suit. This study aims to design and test, according to NATO standards, multilayer structures that will protect combat personnel under conditions of reduced stress, addressing these vital needs.

Methodological approach to determining the nomenclature of mobile assets for acomplishment the tasks of nuclear threat detection and assessment

The relevance of the article is due to the fact that in the context of countering largescale aggression, Ukraine's actions to de-occupy the captured territories and implementing its strategic course to join the European community and NATO, there are potential threats from the russian federation. Continuing its hostile rhetoric, terrorising Ukraine with missile strikes, the russian leadership threatens to use nuclear weapons, which poses the highest level of danger and can lead tolarge-scale radiation contamination (Lessons of the russian-Ukrainian war 2022: military aspects, 2022). Taking into consideration this state of the security environment, it is necessary to respond effectively to nuclear threats and ensure reliable protection of troops, which, in their turn, should be ready to act in radiation contamination conditions. This requires the Armed Forces of Ukraine to effectively train military units of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defence capable of performing their assigned tasks and, in the further future, to be ready to detect and assess nuclear threats in joint actions (operations) with the units of NATO member states. All this requires solving problematic issues related to the nomenclature of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defence equipment of the Armed Forces of Ukraine to ensure the required level of protection of troops. Especially challenging tasks in the current environment are the detection and assessment of the chemical, biological and radiological situation of the movement routes and areas of troops' concentration, the covering of troops and facilities of the Armed Forces of Ukraine from reconnaissance and destruction by modern precision weapons, and the liquidation of the chemical, biological and radiological contamination consequences. To a large extent, the maximum reduction of troop losses during actions in conditions of chemical, biological and radiological contamination is ensured by the application of existing and prospective assets of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defence However, it is impossible to make reasonable decisions on the nomenclature of mobile chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defence equipment without determining the amount of losses of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defence equipment during the conduct of tasks in the operations of the Armed Forces of Ukraine in accordance with the trends in the development of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, forms and methods of warfare, and assets of combat actions. To solve this problematic issue, we propose a methodological approach to determining the nomenclature on the example of mobile assets to fulfil the scope of tasks for detecting and assessing nuclear threats. The methodological approach will allow to formulate substantiated practical recommendations regarding the procedure for determining the nomenclature of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear protection assets. The article presents the nomenclature of nuclear threat detection and assessment, which depends on the scope of detection and assessment tasks and the capabilities of assets used to accomplish these tasks. The materials of the article may be useful for officials of military command and control bodies involved in planning chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) defence during combat actions.

Optimization of the Air Cleaning Properties of Fog

Fog droplets are very often used as a cleaning agent when air pollution can be dangerous for health conditions and ecosystem. This work presents a new system to optimize the cleaning properties of fog by tuning its microphysical parameters. For this purpose, a newly developed system, which is based on the electromagnetic echo effect (EMEE) sensor, is used to detect the most efficient interaction between fog and impurities, i.e., which fog droplets can be used to most effectively clean a certain type of pollutant from the air. Fog droplet spectra controlled by the nozzle pressure system can be used to effectively remove pollutants from the air. For this purpose, an automated system for aerosol generation can allow an accurate control over the fog microphysical parameters and the use of fluids with specific concentrations of pulverized chemical compounds. Fog droplet size distribution is controlled by the feeding gas pressure at the nozzle and chemical simulants. The experimental results showed that the microphysical parameters (MP) are directly related to the impurity of species used in the cleanup simulation process. The MP parameters of fog are liquid water content (LWC), droplet mean radius (Rm), droplet number concentration (Nd), and both aerosol type and mass concentration. In the lab testing, harmless simulants of CBRN (chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear) species were used. During the tests, fog droplet size distribution is controlled by the air pressure at the nozzle and simulants. It is concluded that an integrated fog generator system (IFGS) with EMEE sensor developed in the current work can be utilized broadly to control fog microphysical parameters, leading to an optimum aerosol/chemical species’ cleaning process.

Investigation of the effect of types of two different air filtered full-face masks used in chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear (CBRN) events on endotracheal intubation time: A randomized controlled study

IntroductionHealthcare personnel may have to intervene with the injured using personal protective equipment depending on the environmental conditions.In injuries occurring in chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) events, healthcare personnel may have to intervene in the injured using personal protective equipment.The equipment used may lead to limitations, especially in cases requiring advanced airway intervention such as intubation. In this study, the effects of personal protective equipment on the intubation times of healthcare personnel were investigated. MethodThis research was planned as a randomized prospective study, and the intubation procedure was performed on a simulation manikin. The intubation times were evaluated among three separate groups, 21 paramedic personnel in each. One group worked without masks, one used front filter masks, and the last worked with side filter masks. ResultsThe time spent for intubation by wearing a full-face mask with a side air filter and the intubation times performed without a mask were significantly different (p = 0.011). However, the intubation times of the groups using front and side air-filtered full-face masks were similar (p = 0.279). ConclusionsHealth personnel should use a full-face mask with a front air filter as personal protective equipment during the interventions for the injured who need endotracheal intubation.

Biological defence through the civil protection system analysis and suggestions from the perspective of CBRN defence doctrine

Biological defence through the civil protection system analysis and suggestions from the perspective of CBRN defence doctrine

Predicted thermal responses of military working dog (MWD) to chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear (CBRN) protective kennel enclosure

Predicted thermal responses of military working dog (MWD) to chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear (CBRN) protective kennel enclosure

Ferromagnetic carbon/graphite: from CBRN Defense to sensors applied to oncology as a promising way to detect and fight cancer and tumors/ neoplasms

The emerging field of multifunctional sensors for different application sectors requires high sensitivity, accuracy, reproducibility, mechanical flexibility, and low cost for a wide range of applications, from medicine to security and defense. While many national defense institutions and services have developed sensors to detect chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear threats (i.e., for CBRN Defense), better sensors are needed as well as the ability to feed the right data quickly into command centers for analysis and action on threats. All these new devices depend on new material like the so-called nanocarbons, with novel properties and morphologies. For example, nanocarbons, such as graphene, are beginning to be obtained from the use of pulsed laser deposition (PLD) to manufacture sensors for the detection of substances that can be used as chemical warfare agents. On the other side of novel applications, nanostructured materials are beginning to be used in nanomedicine. This is the case of nanostructured carbon used as a drug carrier. This is the main subject of the present article. Despite all the incredible and recent advances in all technological areas, including those applied to medicine, depending on the stage of detection, cancer is still a difficult-to-treat disease associated with a negative prognosis. Each year, the American Cancer Society estimates the number of new cancer cases and deaths in the United States and compiles the most recent data on population-based cancer occurrence and outcomes. As expected, it shows that cancer is one of the leading causes of death, accounting for millions of deaths worldwide each year. All over the last decade, new techniques and methods for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases based on new materials and new morphologies have emerged. Many of the basic technologies of medical physics are well-established, using well-understood physics principles. Clinical applications of those technologies have improved spectacularly, in many cases because of improvements in physics and engineering. In this context, new materials have been playing an important role. Carbon is starting to be one of those materials with promising applications in medicine, especially ferromagnetic carbon/graphite. The occurrence of magnetism in carbon-based materials has been the subject of many investigations and some controversy over the past four decades, given the enormous interest in the possibility of producing carbon-based magnetic materials free from metallic elements like Fe, Co, and Ni. Exactly two decades ago, in 2004, we presented to the scientific community a very low-cost chemical route to reach one of the most sought-after materials in the history of science: pure organic carbon-based magnetic material stable at room temperature. The prospect of carbon-based magnetic materials like that, has been of immense fundamental and practical importance. Information on atomic-scale features was required for a better understanding of the mechanisms leading to carbon magnetism. That came out only in 2015, when we published an article at Nature Scientific Reports, reporting strong and incontrovertible results proving that magnetism in this material was genuine and independent of the presence of any magnetic impurity. We presented experimental confirmation that its magnetism originates from defects in the atomic structure. Those results were obtained from direct measurement of the local magnetic field using 13C nuclear magnetic resonance associated with the numerical results obtained from DFT (Density-Functional Theory) calculations. In this review, exclusively about our own work, we describe the obtention and main properties of carbon-based nanostructured magnetic material and how it is starting to be one of those materials with promising applications in medicine. Here, we give a comprehensive and complete view of our search looking for the obtention of this material, which is stable at room temperature and is free from metallic ferromagnetic elements. Besides its chemical obtention and properties, here we show its use from magnetic bio-hybrid matrices until the so-called MAGUS® (MAgnetic Graphite Universal System), a sensor with promising applications in oncology aiming to detect and fight cancer and tumors/neoplasms. The paper is organized as follows: (a) in section 1 we give the scope and purpose of the article; (b) in section 2 we describe the discovery, the intrinsic nature, the nanofluid behavior, and the potential for both a drug delivery system and the use for diagnosis or imaging of carbon-based nanostructured magnetic material; (c) in section 3 we show the detailed methodology and explanation of why the methods were chosen following the same order of those topics of section 2; (d) in section 4 we show and discuss the obtained results and we answer all research open questions; and (e) in section 5 we give the conclusions. At the end, we give a list of references, most of which are our own.

Swarm Robots in CBRN Decontamination: Enhancing Efficiency and Safety

In this paper, we explore the integration of swarm robots in CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear) decontamination processes. Swarm robots, known for their collaborative and decentralized nature, hold promise in improving the efficiency and safety of decontamination operations. Our study provides an overview of swarm robots and CBRN decontamination, highlighting the challenges and requirements associated with this critical task. We delve into the specific applications of swarm robots in CBRN decontamination, discussing their design considerations, operational aspects, and the advantages they bring to the process. To evaluate the efficacy of swarm robot systems, we present real-world case studies encompassing various scenarios. Furthermore, we address the remaining challenges in this field and explore future directions by identifying emerging technologies and techniques. Our research aims to contribute to the existing knowledge base, fostering a deeper understanding of swarm robot based CBRN decontamination and inspiring further advancements in this evolving domain.

Review of recently reported Ricin detection techniques focusing on combined immunoassay detection with abrin and saxitoxin in human plasma

Increasing non-traditional threats from biological or chemical weapons, the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) have tried to perform the preliminary analysis of biotoxin sample to standardize analysis methods and strengthen analytical capabilities among OPCW member countries. With the changes of new analysis, ROK CBRN Defense Research Institute (CDRI) established enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and cytotoxicity analysis methods for ricin, abrin, and saxitoxin through the OPCW exercise on Biotoxin sample analysis. Thus, this study aims to established analytical methods (ELISA and cytotoxicity analysis) for the biological toxins called ricin, abrin and saxitoxin according to recent OPCW Biotoxin detection exercise. In particular, to refine practical and effective methods of biological analysis, we reviewed recent research on scientific analysis of ricin as a potential bioterror weapon, letter with ricin sent in White House, and suggested future agendas for preparedness testing.

Sağlık personellerinin kimyasal, biyolojik, radyasyon ve nükleer tehlikelerden korunma ve acil yardım uygulamaları ile ilgili bilgi düzeyleri ve farkındalıkları

Purpose: The accidental or intentional release of CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear) substances into the environment causes significant loss of life and property and has adverse effects over a long time. This study was planned to raise awareness about protection from CBRN hazards and emergency aid practices, create CBRN awareness, and determine the knowledge level of healthcare professionals. Materials and methods: After reviewing the literature and regulations, the questionnaire was prepared based on the training module on "Emergency Assistance in Chemical, Biological, Radiation and Nuclear Hazards" for Emergency Health Services published by the Ministry of National Education; of the Republic of Turkey. The questionnaire was asked to participants before and after 10 hours of theoretical CBRN training, and the results were compared. Results: The participants were 58.4% female, 41.6% male, and the average age was 38. Most participants were doctors or nurses, and approximately three-quarters of the participants were emergency service staff. 35.6% of them had been working in the emergency department for 1-5 years. 61.4% had not received CBRN training, and 84.2% thought they needed sufficient knowledge and experience. 77.2% had not experienced any CBRN incident nor performed any intervention for CBRN. When the 22 questions asked about the level of CBRN knowledge were evaluated, it was seen that the correct answer rate was above 50% in seven questions of 22 and was above 50% in all questions in the post-test applied after the training. Their level of knowledge was found to be low before CBRN training and good after training. Conclusion: Theoretical training has a significant positive impact on creating CBRN awareness.

Multipurpose Hall for CBRNe Incidents

"A multipurpose hall designed for CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear) purposes plays a vital role in enhancing preparedness, response, and recovery capabilities in the face of CBRN incidents. A multipurpose hall for CBRN purposes provides a dedicated and specialized environment to support CBRN preparedness, response, and recovery efforts. It enhances coordination, facilitates training and exercises, ensures proper equipment storage, and fosters collaboration, ultimately strengthening the ability to protect personnel, mitigate risks, and minimize the impact of CBRN incidents. This study is qualitative research based on the content analysis method. To design and build multipurpose halls for CBRN events, this study can be used as a checklist. The purpose of this study is to collect important factors and sub-factors in the design, construction, and equipping of buildings and multi-purpose CBRN structures."

Creating realistic nerve agent victim profiles for computer simulation of medical CBRN disaster response.

In the last decades, Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) threats have become serious risks prompting countries to prioritize preparedness for such incidents. As CBRN scenarios are very difficult and expensive to recreate in real life, computer simulation is particularly suited for assessing the effectiveness of contingency plans and identifying areas of improvement. These computer simulation exercises require realistic and dynamic victim profiles, which are unavailable in a civilian context. In this paper we present a set of civilian nerve agent injury profiles consisting of clinical parameters and their evolution, as well as the methodology used to create them. These injury profiles are based on military injury profiles and adapted to the civilian population, using sarin for the purpose of illustration. They include commonly measured parameters in the prehospital setting. We demonstrate that information found in military sources can easily be adjusted for a civilian population using a few simple assumptions and validated methods. This methodology can easily be expanded to other chemical warfare agents as well as different ways of exposure. The resulting injury profiles are generic so they can also be used in tabletop and live simulation exercises. Modeling and simulation, if used correctly and in conjunction with empirical data gathered from lessons learned, can assist in providing the evidence practices for effective and efficient response decisions and interventions, considering the contextual factors of the affected area and the specific disaster scenario.

Applicability of PROACTIVE recommendations on CBRNe risks and threats to passenger rail and metro sectors

Passenger rail and metro sectors are no stranger to malicious or unintentional Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear and explosive (CBRNe) incidents. Over the last years, the EU H2020 Project PROACTIVE has developed recommendations based on a multimethodological approach which involved questionnaires, interviews and workshops with CBRNe practitioners and security experts. However, these recommendations are geared towards specialised first responders. With a particular focus on rail and metro, this paper examines the answers collected from railway and metro security experts during these research activities to see at which level the PROACTIVE recommendations are fit for these sectors. The results show that some of the generic PROACTIVE recommendations for first responders are already being applied. For example, the recommendations regarding inter-agency collaboration appear to already be put in place. In contrast, other recommendations such as the ones on crisis communication and the inclusion of vulnerable groups in preparedness actions could be applicable since important gaps are present. We discuss the major gaps and how they could be filled in the future.

ASSESSMENT OF DISASTER AND CBRN INFORMATICS LEVELS AND ATTITUDES OF FIRST AND EMERGENCY AID PROGRAM SENIOR STUDENTS

Aim: This study aimed to assess the disaster and CBRN informatics levels and attitudes of the first and emergency aid program senior students.
 
 Material and Method: The research sample consists of students (84 individuals) enrolled at Gümüşhane University Vocational School of Health Services (VSHS) in the spring semester of the 2019-2020 academic year. The study participants provided their written consent, allowing the study to conduct in compliance with ethical standards. Additionally, the Gümüşhane University Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee issued its clearance (2019/1) for the research project, and the University VSHS Directorate provided the required institutional permission to carry out the research. A survey questionnaire (form) generated by the researcher in line with the literature was used to collect data and subsequently analyze the disaster and CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear) knowledge levels and attitudes of the senior students enrolled in the first and emergency aid program.
 
 Results: The senior students enrolled in the first and emergency aid program stated receiving disaster- (76.2%) and CBRN-related (79.8%) education, and 89.3% reported attending these practices. They were aware of having 75% and 100% additional roles and responsibilities during and after the disasters, respectively. Moreover, 51.2% of the participants remarked that they primarily engaged in therapy and health practices, whereas 63.1% indicated that they were partially ready in case of a disaster.
 
 Conclusion: The data acquired under the study scope revealed that the senior students in the first and emergency aid program had previously taken classes on CBRN and disaster-related subjects and participated in their practices. They acknowledged that they had additional obligations during and after the disaster, asserting that their responsibilities mainly focused on applying treatment and health practices. Therefore, they concluded to be partially ready in case of any disaster.

Respiratory protection and refractive error: Comment on 'Staff perceptions of military chemical-biological-radiological-nuclear (CBRN) air-purifying masks during a simulated clinical task in the context of SARS-CoV-2'.

Respiratory protection and refractive error: Comment on 'Staff perceptions of military chemical-biological-radiological-nuclear (CBRN) air-purifying masks during a simulated clinical task in the context of SARS-CoV-2'.