Cheetah Research Articles

Using GPS collars to investigate the frequency and behavioural outcomes of intraspecific interactions among carnivores: A case study of male cheetahs in the Maasai Mara, Kenya.

Intraspecific interactions between individuals or groups of individuals of the same species are an important component of population dynamics. Interactions can be static, such as spatial overlap, or dynamic based on the interactions of movements, and can be mediated through communication, such as the deployment of scent marks. Interactions and their behavioural outcomes can be difficult to determine, especially for species that live at low densities. With the use of GPS collars we quantify both static and dynamic interactions between male cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and the behavioural outcomes. The 99% home-ranges of males overlapped significantly while there was little overlap of the 50% home-ranges. Despite this overlap, male cheetahs rarely came into close proximity of one another, possibly because presence was communicated through frequent visits to marking posts. The minimum distance between individuals in a dyad ranged from 89m to 196m but the average proximity between individuals ranged from 17,145 ± 6,865m to 26,367 ± 11,288m. Possible interactions took place more frequently at night than by day and occurred mostly in the 50% home-range of one individual of a dyad or where cores of both individuals overlapped. After a possible encounter male cheetahs stayed in close proximity to each other for up to 6 hours, which could be the result of a territory defence strategy or the presence of a receptive female. We believe that one of the encounters between a singleton and a 5-male coalition resulted in the death of the singleton. Our results give new insights into cheetah interactions, which could help our understanding of ecological processes such as disease transmission.

Oxygen transport characteristics of blood from the fastest terrestrial mammal, the African cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

The African cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is the world's fastest terrestrial mammal, capable of reaching speeds of about 100 km h−1 over short distances. Central to its exceptional athleticism is the ability to deliver oxygen to muscles, where the cardiovascular system plays a critical role in supplying oxygen and preventing the accumulation of metabolic waste products even during intensive sprints. However, little is known about the blood transport properties of cheetahs. Therefore, we measured the effects of temperature on blood viscosity (ηbl) and hemoglobin (Hb) O2 affinity (P50) at resting body temperature (38 °C) and post-sprint body temperature (41 °C) in 5 adult animals undergoing routine health checks. Mean hematocrit (Hct) was 41.5 ± 2.5 (SD) %. Whole blood ηbl was exponentially-related to Hct (P<0.001; r2 >0.99) at both temperatures; the slopes (0.024 ± 0.0003) of this relationship were not different at the two temperatures, but the y-intercept was lower at 41 °C (P<0.001). Increased temperature from 38 °C to 41 °C significantly (P<0.001) reduced η of whole blood (3.39 ± 0.23 vs. 3.08 ± 0.23 mPa s) and plasma (1.27 ± 0.04 vs. 1.15 ± 0.04 mPa s). Purified Hb had a P50 of 22.2 mm Hg at 38° C and 25.8 mm Hg at 41°C. O2-affinity of Hb decreased only slightly (~3–4 mm Hg) in the presence of 2-fold molar excess DPG, similar to other felid Hbs, and decreased by ~13–14 mm Hg with the addition 100 mM Clat both temperatures. Neither temperature nor allosteric modifier significantly changed the Hill coefficient of Hb. These results indicate that cheetah blood has rheological properties similar to that of other mammals and Hb properties similar to other felids. The reduced viscosity at higher temperatures, typical of exercising muscles, would facilitate blood flow and O2 transport during sprints. Support or Funding Information Supported by Natur og Univers, Det Frie Forskningsråd (FNU), Denmark. Blood viscosity as a function of Hct at two temperatures for cheetah blood Purified cheetah Hb P50, Hb P50with DPG and Hb P50with chloride at 38 °C. Different letters reflect significant differences (P<0.05). This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

A comparative survey of microsatellites among wild and domestic cat provides valuable resources for marker development.

Information on the level and distribution of genetic variation is important for conservation plan of captive population of an endangered species such as tiger and cheetah. We assayed the frequency of microsatellites in the genomic and genic sequences of wild cats (Panthera tigris, Acinonyx jubatus) and compared it with the domestic cat (Felis catus). Frequency, relative abundance and density of microsatellites were highest in the domestic cat when compared with wild cats. The frequency of microsatellites was positively correlated with the G+C content of genomic and genic sequences. The maximum frequency of microsatellites among all three sequence sets was of di-nucleotide repeats (genomic-88.1%; genic-70.4%), whereas the hexa-nucleotide repeat represents < 0.5%. Motif conservation study among the genomic and genic sequences revealed conservation of 81.3% and 51.0% motif within the members of family Felidae. A total 40,233 primers from genic sequences were designed in order to enrich the members of family Felidae with genomic resources. The designed primers could be useful in determining the molecular genetics of population structure and individualization of a particular cat.

Age-specific gastrointestinal parasite shedding in free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) on Namibian farmland.

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus Brookes 1828) is classified as "vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Threats to cheetah populations are a decrease of suitable habitats, an increase of conflicts with livestock farmers and potentially pathogens. While there is some information on the viral and bacterial pathogens circulating in cheetah populations, information on gastrointestinal parasites is scarce. Here, we investigate the gastrointestinal parasites in 39 free-ranging cheetahs in east-central Namibia using a coproscopical parasitological method. Most cheetahs (82%) shed eggs from Ancylostoma which comprised the majority of the total eggs in feces. Eggs and oocysts from Toxascaris (21% of cheetahs), Coccidia (13%), Physaloptera (8%), Taeniidae (5%), Dipylidium (3%), and Diphyllobothriidae (3%) were present at a lower prevalence. Parasite richness and Ancylostoma egg load were higher in juveniles and adults compared to cubs, but were not associated with sex. To our knowledge, this is the first study that assessed gastrointestinal parasites in free-ranging cheetahs and is a key starting point for future studies on the effect of parasites in this threatened species.

Analysis of metabolic flux in felid spermatozoa using metabolomics and 13C-based fluxomics†

Spermatozoa from three feline species-the domestic cat (Felis catus), the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), and the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)-were analyzed using metabolomic profiling and 13C-based fluxomics to address questions raised regarding their energy metabolism. Metabolic profiles and utilization of 13C-labeled energy substrates were detected and quantified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Spermatozoa were collected by electroejaculation and incubated in media supplemented with 1.0 mM [U13C]-glucose, [U13C]-fructose, or [U13C]-pyruvate. Evaluation of intracellular metabolites following GC-MS analysis revealed the uptake and utilization of labeled glucose and fructose in sperm, as indicated by the presence of heavy ions in glycolytic products lactate and pyruvate. Despite evidence of substrate utilization, neither glucose nor fructose had an effect on the sperm motility index of ejaculated spermatozoa from any of the three felid species, and limited entry of pyruvate derived from these hexose substrates into mitochondria and the tricarboxylic acid cycle was detected. However, pathway utilization was species-specific for the limited number of individuals (four to seven males per species) assessed in these studies. An inhibitor of fatty acid beta-oxidation (FAO), etomoxir, altered metabolic profiles of all three felid species but decreased motility only in the cheetah. While fluxomic analysis provided direct evidence that glucose and fructose undergo catabolic metabolism, other endogenous substrates such as endogenous lipids may provide energy to fuel motility.

Predators and pastoralists: how anthropogenic pressures inside wildlife areas influence carnivore space use and movement behaviour

AbstractAcross the globe, wildlife populations and their behaviours are negatively impacted by people. Protected areas are believed to be an antidote to increasing human pressures but even they are not immune to the impact of anthropogenic activities. Areas that have been set aside for the protection of wildlife therefore warrant more attention when investigating the impact of anthropogenic pressures on wildlife. We use cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus as a case study to explore how a large carnivore responds to anthropogenic pressures inside wildlife areas. Using GPS‐collar data we investigate cheetah space use, both when moving and stationary, and movement parameters (speed and turn angles) in relation to human disturbance, distance to human settlement, livestock abundance and livestock site use inside wildlife areas. Space use was negatively influenced by human disturbance, resulting in habitat loss and fragmentation and potentially reducing landscape permeability between neighbouring wildlife areas. Cheetahs were also less likely to stop in areas where livestock numbers were high, but more likely to stop in areas that were frequently used by livestock. The latter could reflect that cheetahs are attracted to livestock however, cheetahs in the study area rarely predated on livestock. It is therefore more likely that areas that are frequently used by livestock attract wild herbivores, which in turn could influence cheetah space use. We did not find any effects of people and livestock on cheetahs’ speed and turn angles which might be related to the resolution of the data. We found that cheetahs are sensitive to human pressures and we believe that they could be an indicator species for other large carnivores facing similar challenges. We suggest that further research is needed to determine the levels of anthropogenic pressures needed to maintain ecological integrity, especially inside wildlife areas.

Immunological MHC supertypes and allelic expression: how low is the functional MHC diversity in free-ranging Namibian cheetahs?

Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) are a textbook example of how habitat loss, human-wildlife conflicts and historic bottlenecks depleted genetic variability, both genome-wide and at the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which plays an integral role in the adaptive immune response. However, free-ranging Namibian cheetahs show no signs of impaired immunocompetence or health. This contradicts theoretical expectations and poses the question whether the manner by which MHC diversity is judged needs to be revised. Here, we show that free-ranging Namibian cheetahs still harbour MHC alleles that are divergent enough to cover several functionally distinct MHC supertypes and thus are probably capable of binding and presenting a relatively broad range of antigens to T-cells. We detected a similar pattern in three other free-ranging, strongly bottlenecked cat species, supporting the hypothesis that species with a low MHC allelic diversity might be able to retain functional diversity not within but across loci. Moreover, the allelic composition influences the level of MHC class I and class II expression which also might play a significant role in pathogen defence. Thus, our study indicates that the evolutionary role of MHC diversity goes beyond counting the remaining number of MHC alleles and offers an explanation as to how cat species might have avoided impaired immuno-competence, despite showing low MHC allelic diversity. Although the low MHC diversity currently seems to be sufficient to ensure the health of free-ranging cheetahs, it is currently unknown whether it can provide sufficient protection from future threats through emerging new pathogens.

Body temperature, activity patterns and hunting in free-living cheetah: biologging reveals new insights.

As one of the few felids that is predominantly diurnal, cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) can be exposed to high heat loads in their natural habitat. Little is known about long-term patterns of body temperature and activity (including hunting) in cheetahs because long-term concurrent measurements of body temperature and activity have never been reported for cheetahs, or, indeed, for any free-living felid. We report here body temperature and locomotor activity measured with implanted data loggers over 7 months in 5 free-living cheetahs in Namibia. Air temperature ranged from a maximum of 39 °C in summer to -2 °C in winter. Cheetahs had higher (∼0.4 °C) maximum 24-h body temperatures, later acrophase (∼1 h), with larger fluctuations in the range of the 24-h body temperature rhythm (approximately 0.4 °C) during a hot-dry period than during a cool-dry period, but maintained homeothermy irrespective of the climatic conditions. As ambient temperatures increased, the cheetahs shifted from a diurnal to a crepuscular activity pattern, with reduced activity between 900 and 1500 hours and increased nocturnal activity. The timing of hunts followed the general pattern of activity; the cheetahs hunted when they were on the move. Cheetahs hunted if an opportunity presented itself; on occasion they hunted in the midday heat or in total darkness (new moon). Biologging revealed insights into cheetah biology that are not accessible by traditional observer-based techniques.

Noninvasive cardiac output monitoring using bioreactance in pediatric continuous blood purification patients

Objective To study the influence of continuous blood purification(CBP) on cardiac output of pediatric patients using bioreactance. Methods Patients underwent CBP in PICU and nephrology ward from March 2014 were prospectively enrolled after approval by ethics committee.CBP therapies were all performed by Fresenius Medical Care hemodialysis machine.Cardiac output values were obtained using the non-invasive cardiac output monitoring(NICOM) device (Cheetah Medical). Blood pressure, heart rate, cardiac index(CI) and stroke volume index(SVI) were recorded before the therapy, at the beginning of therapy, during the course of therapy, and at the end of each therapy. Results Twenty-one pediatric patients (from 1.0 year to 15.5 years) were recruited and 69 treatments were recorded from March 2014 to December 2016.The basic CI was 3.4 (2.4, 6.1) L/(min·m2), basic SVI was 43 (26, 75) ml/(m2·beat). During the beginning of therapy, mean arterial pressure(MAP), CI and SVI all dropped from the baseline (P<0.001), whereas heart rate increased.During the course of CBP, CI and SVI (were both recorded every 4 hours) kept on dropping and stayed at a relatively lower level.Course CI was 3.0 (2.4, 4.6) L/(min·m2) and course SVI was 28 (21, 57) ml/(m2·beat). At the end of therapy, CI was 3.4 (2.5, 5.3) L/(min·m2), with no significant difference from the baseline CI (P=0.073). However, the SVI at the end of therapy was 35 (25, 67) ml/(m2·beat), higher than the course SVI but still lower than the basic SVI, the differences were statistically significant (P<0.05). Conclusion CI and SVI continue to decline at the beginning of CBP treatment and remain at a lower level throughout the course of treatment.After the therapy, CI has returned to the basic level whereas SVI has not recovered. Key words: Bioreactance; Noninvasive cardiac output monitoring; Continuous blood purification; Children,

Reproductive biology of the 38 extant felid species: a review

Abstract Knowledge of reproductive biology is crucial to improving in situ and ex situ breeding programmes for felids. We reviewed the available literature (223 publications) on the reproductive biology of all 38 felid species. We found that 78% of the publications (173) were focused on either or both the oestrous cycles (84) or ejaculate traits (92) of felids. Literature was biased towards the domestic cat Felis catus (31), the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus (27), and the panthera lineage (66). There was a paucity of literature on the caracal lineage (7), the bay cat lineage (3), members of the domestic cat lineage other than the domestic cat (11), and several species of the ocelot lineage. The mean duration of oestrus varies little between the different lineages and species (mean 5.2 days, range 1–10 days, nE = 2265). However, the duration of interoestrus varies greatly in most species (e.g. 1–118 days in the domestic cat). Gestation length also varies significantly between species, but is similar within each lineage and related to adult body size. Non‐pregnant luteal phases appear to persist for half the duration of pregnant luteal phases (48%, 21–71 days, nE = 256; c.f. previous reports of one‐third the duration of pregnant luteal phases). Sperm motility (sperm motility index), sperm viability, and acrosome intactness are high in the fresh ejaculates of most felid species [69% (26–90%, nE = 2104), 69% (49–87%, nE = 443), and 84% (21–100%, nE = 1763), respectively]. Teratospermia is highly prevalent within Felidae, but is particularly problematic for the puma and lynx lineages [ejaculates with 76% (63–94%) and 79% (63–98%) abnormal sperm, respectively]. Teratospermia appears to be linked to low genetic diversity. The maintenance and enhancement of genetic diversity through the use of assisted reproductive technologies should be a long‐term goal for felid conservation management. A short‐term management goal should be to improve the success of assisted reproductive technologies in felids by minimising captivity‐related stress, which can adversely affect fertility and ovarian activity.

104 Teratospermia in tigers: Evidence for declining sperm quality over time

Ejaculate traits in male tigers (Panthera tigris) were studied in the 1980s, but little work has been done on male tigers since then and the reproductive status of the current zoo population is not known. In order to characterise ejaculate traits in male tigers, semen was collected by electroejaculation (90 to 100 stimulations, 3 to 7V), subjected to a standard semen analysis (volume and pH and sperm concentration, motility, and morphology), and cryopreserved. To date, semen has been collected from 24 males (n=16 Amur tigers, Panthera tigris altaica, 10.3±1.1 y; n=7 Sumatran tigers, Panthera tigris sumatrae, 9.4±1.3 y; n=1 Malayan tiger, Panthera tigris jacksoni, 6 y), maintained at 18 USA institutions. Ejaculates (4.7±0.6 mL; pH=8.4±0.1) contained 240.3±54.9×106 spermatozoa, which yielded 357 straws of cryopreserved spermatozoa that were used to establish a Tiger Genome Resource Bank. The majority of the spermatozoa were motile (69.2±4.6%), but the proportion of spermatozoa exhibiting normal morphology was very low (18.7±3.3%) and similar between both Amur (20.0±4.8%) and Sumatran (16.3±5.2%) males, with the majority of abnormalities affecting the midpiece (retained cytoplasmic droplets, bent midpieces, or both). Previous studies of male tigers that utilised comparable anaesthesia regimens and collection techniques recovered similar quantities of semen (5 to 10mL), but the proportions of normal spermatozoa in those studies (&amp;gt;65%) were very high (Wildt et al. 1988 Biol. Reprod. 38, 245; Byers et al. 1990 J. Reprod. Fert. 90, 119). Proportions of normal spermatozoa in the current study more closely resemble those reported for the teratospermic (&amp;lt;40% normal spermatozoa) clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa, 18.5% normal spermatozoa, Pukazhenthi et al. 2006 Theriogenology 66, 1790) and cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus, 18.4% normal spermatozoa, Crosier et al. 2007 Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 19, 370), as well as the South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis, 27% normal spermatozoa). The number of spermatozoa per ejaculate was also decreased in Amur tigers (190.1±67.7×106) compared to Sumatran tigers in the current study (362.9±99.5×106) and earlier studies of other Amur tigers (&amp;gt;500×106). The reasons for this apparent decline in sperm quality are unclear, but reduced proportions of normal spermatozoa have been associated with reduced heterozygosity in small, isolated populations of felids (Florida panthers, South China tigers) or species that have been through a genetic bottleneck (cheetahs). Semen collections and evaluations will continue in order to determine if trends for compromised sperm quality are representative of the current SSP population(s) or an artifact of our reduced sample size. Additional studies investigating possible environmental, genetic, or nutritional influences on sperm morphology are also warranted. This work is supported by grants from Association of Zoo and Aquarium’s Conservation Grants Fund and Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium’s Dr. Holly Reed Conservation Fund.

Serum and urine amino acid profiles of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)

Cheetahs in captivity are frequently afflicted by chronic disease conditions that are rare in their free-ranging counterparts and in other felids. To date, clear pathophysiological mechanisms for some of these diseases have not been established. In order to better understand these conditions in this species, we have adopted a systems biology approach to cheetah metabolism, with the hope of generating new hypotheses for future research. As part of a comprehensive metabolome, we determine the serum (N = 42) and urine (N = 26) amino acid profiles of apparently healthy captive cheetahs, housed at the AfriCat Foundation in Namibia, using GC-MS and LC-MS-MS. A total of 36 serum and 38 urine amino acids were identified and quantified. Glutamine was detected in the serum at the highest mean concentration (1624 μmol/L) followed by alanine (771.9 μmol/L), arginine (669.8 μmol/L), and glycine (478.7 μmol/L). Serum glycine, hydroxyproline, prolylproline, proline, and serine concentrations declined significantly with age. Arginine was excreted at the highest mean concentration (740 μmol/L), followed by glutamine (437.1 μmol/L), alanine (397.1 μmol/L), and serine (331.1 μmol/L). The fractional excretion of cystine was by far the highest at 21.92%, followed by hydroxylysine (6.34%), proline-hydroxyproline (5.49%), and α-aminopimelic acid (4.89%). Both urinary glycine and proline-hydroxyproline concentrations decreased significantly with age. None of the serum or urine amino acid concentrations differed significantly between males and females. This study provides some foundational information on the serum and urine amino acid profiles of healthy captive cheetahs.

Evaluation of butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine in captive cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) immobilization

ObjectiveThe butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine fixed-dose combination (BAM, respectively, 30-12-12 mg mL−1) with subsequent antagonism by naltrexone-atipamezole was evaluated for reversible immobilization of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Study designProspective, clinical trial. AnimalsTwelve cheetahs (six males and six females, weighing 37–57 kg) housed in enclosures, were immobilized at Hoedspruit Endangered Species Centre in the Republic of South Africa. MethodsBAM volume dose rate was 0.009–0.014 mL kg−1 (mean ± standard deviation 0.010 ± 0.001 mL kg−1). Total dose in all animals was 0.5 mL. The actual doses were as follows: butorphanol (0.29 ± 0.04 mg kg−1), azaperone (0.12 ± 0.01 mg kg−1) and medetomidine (0.12 ± 0.01 mg kg−1). Physiologic variables and quality of immobilization were recorded every 5 minutes beginning at 15–20 minutes after darting. Arterial blood samples were collected three times at 20, 30 and 40 minutes after darting from all animals for analysis of blood oxygenation and acid-base status. ResultsThe inductions were calm and smooth and mean induction time was 4.0 ± 1.1 minutes. Heart rate (50 ± 9 beats minute−1) and respiratory frequency (20 ± 3 breaths minute−1) were stable throughout immobilization. The recovery time after reversing with naltrexone and atipamezole was 9.1 ± 3.6 minutes. Conclusionsand clinical relevance BAM proved to be a reliable and cardiovascular stable drug combination for immobilization of cheetahs.

Sex and species differences of stress markers in sympatric cheetahs and leopards in Namibia

Physiological stress markers may provide valuable insight for our understanding of costs of given life-history strategies or of wildlife health condition, most importantly in case of threatened species. In the last decade, there has been growing interest in the ecological relevance of cellular oxidative stress, which would provide complimentary information to that obtained by the classic analyses of glucocorticoid hormones. In this study, we analysed the sex and species variation of five blood-based markers of oxidative status, both molecular oxidative damage and antioxidant protection, in sympatric cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and leopards (Panthera pardus) living on Namibian farmlands. Both these terrestrial carnivores are classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. We found that female cheetahs had significantly higher serum reactive oxygen metabolites of non-protein origin and lower glutathione peroxidase activity in whole blood than both male and female leopards and male cheetahs. We also found that cheetahs and leopards differed in the association between the two antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase. Correlations among oxidative status markers were stronger in female cheetahs than leopards or male cheetahs. Our results suggest that female cheetahs are more sensitive to local sources of stress. Our work did not corroborate the assumption that two species with different life histories consistently differ in key physiological traits.

Genome sequencing and conservation genomics in the Scandinavian wolverine population.

Genetic approaches have proved valuable to the study and conservation of endangered populations, especially for monitoring programs, and there is potential for further developments in this direction by extending analyses to the genomic level. We assembled the genome of the wolverine (Gulo gulo), a mustelid that in Scandinavia has recently recovered from a significant population decline, and obtained a 2.42Gb draft sequence representing >85% of the genome and including >21,000protein-coding genes. We then performed whole-genome resequencing of 10Scandinavian wolverines for population genomic and demographic analyses. Genetic diversity was among the lowest detected in a red-listed population (mean genome-wide nucleotide diversity of 0.05%). Results of the demographic analyses indicated a long-term decline of the effective population size (Ne ) from 10,000well before the last glaciation to <500 after this period. Current Ne appeared even lower. The genome-wide FIS level was 0.089 (possibly signaling inbreeding), but this effect was not observed when analyzing a set of highly variable SNP markers, illustrating that such markers can give a biased picture of the overall character of genetic diversity. We found significant population structure, which has implications for population connectivity and conservation. We used an integrated microfluidic circuit chip technology to develop an SNP-array consisting of 96 highly informative markers that, together with a multiplex pre-amplification step, was successfully applied to low-quality DNA from scat samples. Our findings will inform management, conservation, and genetic monitoring of wolverines and serve as a genomic roadmap that can be applied to other endangered species. The approach used here can be generally utilized in other systems, but we acknowledge the trade-off between investing in genomic resources and direct conservation actions.

RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS AND VALIDATION OF SERUM SYMMETRIC DIMETHYLARGININE (SDMA) CONCENTRATIONS IN CHEETAHS ( ACINONYX JUBATUS).

Kidney disease is common among captive cheetahs ( Acinonyx jubatus). Serum creatinine is the most common measurement to estimate glomerular filtration rate (GFR) because of the ease of its clinical use, but it is a crude estimate that only increases after significant disease is already present and is affected by extrarenal factors. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is a renal biomarker in humans, dogs, and cats that correlates with serum creatinine and GFR and appears to be an earlier and more specific biomarker for kidney disease. Ninety-two banked serum samples from 11 cheetahs housed at the Oklahoma City Zoo from 1992 to 2012 were retrospectively analyzed. Histopathology results were available for 10/11 cheetahs, and all 10 had histologic renal lesions. General categories of renal lesions included glomerulosclerosis (7/10; 70%), amyloidosis (7/10; 70%), inflammatory (9/10; 90%), and oxalate nephrosis (2/10; 20%). SDMA immunoassay and mass spectrometry were measured for validation and compared with creatinine to assess for correlation. Serum creatinine concentrations were determined by enzymatic colorimetric methods. SDMA immunoassay was validated in cheetahs and correlated well with serum creatinine ( R2=0.687; P < 0.0001). SDMA and serum creatinine measured from freeze-thawed stored samples show high correlation in individual cheetahs ( R2 = 0.972; P < 0.0001). These data support that SDMA could be a promising renal biomarker in cheetahs. Further research is warranted to investigate whether SDMA might be an earlier indicator of kidney disease in cheetahs and whether this assay can be extended to other nondomestic carnivores.

Correction: Full-term pregnancy with vaginal birth following dystocia and caesarean section in two cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)

Correction: Full-term pregnancy with vaginal birth following dystocia and caesarean section in two cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)

Conservation of severely fragmented populations: lessons from the transformation of uncoordinated reintroductions of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) into a managed metapopulation with self-sustained growth

We document and evaluate the use of metapopulation management to conserve a declining population of 217 cheetahs in 40 subpopulations. Metapopulation management resembles a natural metapopulation, but dispersal success, demographic rescue effects and genetic viability are enhanced by moving suitable individuals to selected habitat fragments. Unfortunately, history and results of metapopulation management are rarely published. Cheetahs, extirpated from 85% of South Africa, were reintroduced from Namibian and South African ranches into fenced reserves. During 1965–2009 343 cheetahs were reintroduced, yet reserves held only 289 in 2009. Then translocations of free-roaming cheetahs were halted, and numbers dropped to 217 on 40 reserves by 2012. A metapopulation project was launched, and key conservation problems indentified from interviews and records. Thirty-five percent of reserves had no breeding cheetahs, 13% were inbreeding, fence quality was erratic, 3% of cheetahs were sold into captivity annually, and 28% of cheetah mortalities were anthropogenic. Lions accounted for 31% of mortality, perhaps elevated by lion-inexperienced cheetahs and high lion densities. These problems were addressed, and cheetahs were translocated between reserves. Although the median reserve size was only 125 km2 holding four cheetahs, and 80% of reserves were privately owned, in 6 years the metapopulation grew by 51% to 328 cheetahs on 51 reserves, while genetic diversity was managed and monitored. Thus, using metapopulation management, low density species and associated key processes, including carnivory or mega-herbivory, can be conserved in relatively small reserves in regions with dense human populations precluding natural gene flow.

Coping with intrasexual behavioral differences: Capture-recapture abundance estimation of male cheetah.

Population estimates are a fundamental requirement of ecology and conservation. While capture–recapture models are an established method for producing such estimates, their assumption of homogeneous capture probabilities is problematic given that heterogeneity in individual capture probability is inherent to most species. Such variation must be accounted for by abundance models; otherwise, biased estimates are risked.Here, we investigate the performance of four types of heterogeneity models for estimating abundance of male cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, a species with two distinct spatial tactics of territorial and nonterritorial (floater) males. The differences in spatial movements of territory holders and floaters are expected to result in intrasexual heterogeneous capture probabilities. Four heterogeneity models were used to model male abundance at five territories in central Namibia; (a) a spatial tactic model, (b) a finite mixture model, both run in program MARK, (c) a floater‐only model, and (d) a heterogeneity Mh model, both run in the program CAPTURE. Camera trap data of cheetah, taken at frequently visited marking trees, were used to derive true abundance. Model results were compared to the true abundance to assess the accuracy of estimates.Only models (a), (b), and (c) were able to consistently produce accurate results. Mixture models do not require prior knowledge regarding spatial tactic of males, which might not always be available. Therefore, we recommend such models as the preferred model type for cheetahs.Results highlight the potential for mixture models in overcoming the challenges of capture probability heterogeneity and in particular their use with species where intrasexual behavioral differences exist.

Assessing puberty in ex situ male cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) via fecal hormone metabolites and body weights

Cheetahs are one of the most heavily studied felid species, with numerous publications on health, disease, and reproductive physiology produced over the last 30 years. Despite this relatively long history of research, there is a paucity of crucial biological data, such as pubertal onset, which has direct and significant applications to improved management of ex situ cheetah populations. This study aimed to determine age of pubertal onset in ex situ male cheetahs using non-invasive fecal steroid hormone monitoring and body weights. Fecal samples from 12 male cheetahs from four institutions were collected 2–3 times weekly from 1 to 42 months of age. Fecal androgen and glucocorticoid metabolites were analyzed using enzyme immunoassays previously validated for use with cheetah feces. Animal body weights were recorded monthly. Fecal hormone and body weight data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. Androgen concentrations exhibited an increase to levels similar to those observed in adult males by 18–24 months of age, and males attained adult body weights by 21 months of age. Based on these weight data and the initial increase in androgens toward adult concentrations, males were considered pubertal from 18 to 24 months of age. Glucocorticoid concentrations and amplitude of concentration over baseline were also increased during this period. Knowledge about the physiological changes associated with puberty is useful for management and improving reproductive success of cheetah populations under human care, particularly for determining timing of litter separation from dam, littermate dispersal and when to introduce potential breeding pairs.