Cheap Imports Research Articles

Free trade agreements and their effect on the Nigerian agricultural sector: An empirical review

The Nigerian agricultural sector, pivotal to the nation’s economy, faces challenges such as low productivity, limited market access, and structural inefficiencies that hinder its full potential. This empirical review examines the role of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in shaping the sector’s growth and competitiveness. FTAs, including the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), offer expanded market access, increased agricultural exports, technology transfer, and economic integration opportunities. However, these agreements also present challenges, including competition from cheaper imports, dependency on external supply chains, and loss of government revenue. Empirical evidence highlights mixed outcomes of FTAs on Nigeria’s agriculture. While trade liberalisation has driven increased exports and productivity, domestic farmers face risks of market displacement and unequal benefits due to poor infrastructure, limited access to finance, and inadequate support policies. Insights from other nations reveal that the impacts of FTAs depend on country-specific economic conditions and policy frameworks. To maximise the benefits of FTAs, policy recommendations include implementing protection mechanisms for vulnerable sectors, promoting fair trade standards, enhancing infrastructure, facilitating access to finance, and fostering agricultural industrialisation. Effective FTA implementation and targeted interventions can unlock the sector’s potential, driving sustainable growth and inclusive development.

Central America's deindustrialization

This paper analyses industrial trends in six Central American economies by assembling and harmonizing sectoral data from multiple sources. Industrial employment share has declined by an average of 2.5 percentage points over the past two decades. Contrary to a trade-driven deindustrialization hypothesis, which suggests that cheaper imports have replaced domestic production of industrial goods, the findings indicate that this decline is primarily driven by an increase in barriers that restrict the efficient flow of labor across sectors. The paper argues that policy interventions that target these barriers could potentially lead to significant industrial expansion. However, the economic impact of such policies may be marginal, with aggregate output projected to increase by 3.2 percent or less upon eliminating these barriers. Moreover, this approach also carries risks, as it may introduce new distortions that could further hinder economic efficiency. Perhaps a more prudent growth strategy will be to concentrate on boosting productivity, which though challenging, directly affects the output.

Do “local” markets offer new opportunities to Australian seafood producers?

The Australian fishing industry is currently seeking ways to improve its economic viability in the face of external pressures such as competition from cheaper imports and loss of export markets in the wake of the coronavirus pandemic. The promotion of “local” seafood appears successful elsewhere and may offer opportunities for fishers to exploit a previously underutilized market. The aim of this study is to estimate the willingness to pay (WTP) for the attribute “local” against other key attributes of sustainability and freshness when purchasing fish. This study uses a choice experiment based on Australian wild caught Barramundi to determine the importance of these attributes to Queensland seafood consumers. The results of the mixed multinomial logit model indicate that freshness attracts the highest WTP, followed by sustainability and then origin. With respect to the origin attribute, consumers would be willing to pay more for fish identified as locally produced than fish identified more broadly (i.e., State or Australian label). However, this higher willingness to pay is limited to residents from regional coastal areas (i.e., where the produce is caught), with consumers from main metropolitan areas more indifferent to product origin. Nevertheless, the development of a “local” label may also act as a proxy indicator of freshness and sustainability, and provide benefits to both fishers and consumers.

Cheap chicken in Africa: Would import restrictions be pro-poor?

Europe’s chicken exports to Africa have long been criticised for their negative effects on local producers. However, while cheap chicken imports may hurt African poultry farmers, the same cheap imports benefit African consumers and improve their access to affordable nutrients. A few African countries have established import restrictions, but it is unclear how such policies affect different population groups and whether the potential benefits for farmers outweigh the broader social costs. We use nationally representative household data from Ghana and a partial-equilibrium framework to simulate domestic household supply, consumption, and overall welfare effects of two hypothetical policies, namely a 50% import tariff on chicken and a complete import ban. Our results suggest that both policies would lead to increased domestic chicken prices with negative consumption effects that are much larger than the positive supply effects. Average poor and non-poor households in rural and urban areas would suffer welfare losses from these import restrictions. While many households purchase and consume chicken, relatively few produce chicken and only very few sell any chicken in the market. The findings imply that chicken import restrictions are not a pro-poor and welfare-enhancing policy. To compensate the few households particularly hurt by cheap chicken imports, targeted support measures would make more sense economically and socially than general import restrictions.

A global analysis of trade policies in antimicrobial medicines

Antimicrobial medicines are difficult to access for the poor people in many parts of the world, mainly because of their costs and lack of local availability. While it is not necessary that these medicines may be produced across the world, it is possible to import them from countries that have enormous production capacities. For this to happen, the countries that lack these medicines should have trade policies in place that facilitate their cheap imports. However, trade policies typically do not take this aspect into account when they are formulated. The policy determinants of high import tariffs are industrial policy and protectionism-related concerns on one hand and revenue considerations on the other hand. In this paper, we take a close look at the global trade and tariffs in various countries in several antimicrobial medicines and medicaments, to come up with inferences on how countries that import a lot of them may do better by reducing tariffs. Especially, the article deals with anibiotics trade. The export and import drug potentials are investigated. The largest export countries proved to be China, the United Kingdom, India, Canada, Germany, Switzerland and Italy. The import leaders are India, Chile, Austria, the USA, Switzerland. A major policy implication emerging from this study is that countries ought to take a deeper look at the trends in trade and tariffs on antimicrobial drugs on a priority basis, since this has to do with lives of real people. Unnecessary blanket tariffs meant for tariff revenue should be avoided, as we find this in many countries that have hardly any production capacity for these drugs (such as the Bahamas, Djibouti, Bermuda, the Comoros, etc.). The bigger players in the sector, both in terms of imports and exports, have relatively lower tariffs, but there is still a lot of scope of reducing these tariffs to ensure that these drugs are available at affordable prices to people at large. Industrial policy motivations to levy tariffs in order to protect the domestic industry against import competition may also need to be done in a measured manner, because this is about health and safety of people and not just another industry. Having said that, for health security purposes, it makes sense to develop domestic production capacity and supply chains. That can be done based on international partnerships, R&D, domestic tax and other policy incentives like the Production Linked Incentives (PLI) scheme in India (rather than tariffs).

Can System of Rice Intensification Boost Smallholders’ Rice Production in Rainfed, Lowland Areas of Tanzania?

Based on challenges identified and approaches proposed, the paper builds a case for boosting rice production in rain[1]fed lowland areas of Tanzania. The proposed initiative is designed as an action in the field of development cooperation. Despite its complex nature, the initiative aims at an intensification of the prevailing rice production system in rainfed areas, whereby improving the availability of suitable rice seeds and adopting elements from systems of rice intensifica[1]tion (SRI) are proposed as the main agronomic components, which shall be supported by respective research. Further elements to be considered are the management of land and water in these rainfed areas, which are seasonally used for rice production, while the rest of the year they remain fallow, as well as the economics of the production system, which at present is critical and may remain a stumbling block for intensification, also due to the threat from more competitive local production in irrigated areas and cheap imports.

Van ‘onderlinge hulp’ naar ‘onkunde en vooroordeel’

From ‘mutual aid’ to ‘ignorance and prejudice’. Changes in literary representations of adversity in the countryside, 1850-1914. In nineteenth-century Dutch village tales, rural communities often face adversity due to natural hazards. However, representations of (dealing with) adversity change over time. In early village tales (ca. 1850-1885), natural hazards are portrayed as unavoidable, whereas some early twentieth-century village tales emphasise the importance of risk management. Moreover, communities in later village tales might more often resort to blame in the context of natural calamities. This article argues that the changing attitude towards adversity can be linked to the late-nineteenth-century agricultural crisis in Europe, caused by cheap import of agricultural products from the United States and Canada, which lead to an increasing rationalisation of the Dutch countryside.

A food systems approach and qualitative system dynamics model to reveal policy issues within the commercial broiler chicken system in South Africa.

Global broiler production and consumption levels continue to rise. South Africa’s broiler system is dominated by commercial production and formal retail trade, with competition from cheap imports. Local broiler policies have narrow, production-driven, short-term aims for industry growth and national food security. However, these have unintended consequences that undermine the system’s future sustainability. Using a food systems approach, this study developed a qualitative system dynamics model of the South African commercial broiler system and used it to engage stakeholders in policy discussions within the boundaries of health, nutrition, and environmental sustainability. A problem statement and key system elements were drawn from a previously published qualitative study and were validated by 15 stakeholders via an online questionnaire. From this, a seed model was developed, expanded into a larger model, and shared in a modular format with stakeholders in virtual meetings, on an individual or institutional basis, for feedback and validation, and for discussion of areas for policy consideration. Refinements were incorporated into the modules, policy considerations were summarised, and crosscutting issues were identified. The model demonstrated the system’s complexity, interlinkages, feedbacks, reinforcing and balancing loops, and behaviour archetypes. The modular presentation format created a suitable platform for stakeholder engagement. Current policies focus on local commercial production, formal markets, and affordability without cognisance of the broader system represented by the model. Inequality pervades throughout the system. Commercial producers, linked to large supermarkets and fast-food chains, dominate the system, presenting barriers to entry. Affordability is unintentionally traded off against non-communicable disease risks through brining of most frozen products, and ultra-processing of fast-food items. Foodborne disease control is critical, given the proportion of vulnerable individuals, and greater coherence of food safety policy is urgently needed. The environmental footprint of broilers, whilst less than that of ruminants, deserves closer scrutiny based on its dependence on intensive cereal production for feed. This study’s food systems approach provides a system-wide perspective and a foundation for policymakers to develop more integrated and transformative policies.

Zyne: Growth Pangs in a Commoditized Market

Marketing entails challenges. It is even more challenging in developing markets such as India. This case revolves around the challenges faced by a relatively new entrant in the Indian home furnishings market—Zyne. Launched in 2010 and managed by Raman, a third-generation entrepreneur, the case revolves around the opportunities and challenges faced by Zyne and the options it has for effectively positioning itself in the competitive home furnishing market. The company faces a host of challenges in its quest for expanding its market presence. The market for home furnishings is growing but is highly fragmented, with many small and fringe players in the fray. Zyne must ensure good product quality, competitive pricing, higher promotional expenditures and an effective channel strategy to succeed in such a market. It must also extend its channel reach to more prospective markets. As the market matures, new entrants will enter as the investments needed to enter this market are relatively low, and many companies depend on cheaper imports. The company is at a crossroads and plans to establish itself alongside more established rivals such as Bombay Dyeing. Given the backdrop, Raman, armed with an MBA degree, does not want to let go of the opportunity and wishes to assess three options: (i) enter into alliances with international brands and gain entry into more established retail channels, (ii) review and revamp its distribution network and (iii) enhance investments at point of viewing in retail outlets and train the sales personnel in stores to push the Zyne brand.

Enhancing Entrepreneurship Education in Ordinary Secondary Schools to develop Employment opportunity: A case of Kinondoni District Dar Es Salaam -Tanzania

This study aimed to enhance entrepreneurship education toward preparing secondary school students at Kinondoni District Dar es salaam in Tanzania for the creation of employment opportunities. The study aimed at assessing the roles of Entrepreneurship Education in developing employment opportunities for ordinary level secondary schools. The study employed a mixed-method design in examining these phenomena. One hundred and nineteen (119) participants were conveniently sampled and heads of schools were interviewed within 6 weeks. Questionnaires and interview guides were used to collect data hence quantitative data were analyzed descriptively with the aid of SPSS version 22. All qualitative data obtained in the study were thematically analyzed. The study found that Entrepreneurship Education is a very crucial as it prepares student to be good citizens. Also, in today's environment of unpredictability, dynamic job market, and new technologies, are progressing with each passing day and the current generation is progressing towards a future without any inevitability. They might take years to master a particular trade or skill but with time it might disappear from the market, therefore destroying students' careers. The study concluded that teaching entrepreneurship as a study in education has to move beyond listing strategies for raising capital. Students need also to be equipped with skills enabling them to deal with negative attitudes, competition from cheap imports, and the choice of appropriate technologies. There is a distinguished need to improve training programs and make changes in the education system in Tanzania; there is also a need to develop entrepreneurs who would be able to navigate through local troubled waters.

Transitions to Legume-Based Agrifood Systems – Stakeholders' Views from Hungary

The pressing need for the radical transformation towards more sustainable agricultural and food systems, which only recently gained substantially more acknowledgement, staged several underutilised crops in new roles. Legumes have become the primary focus of research and analytical attention first in agroecology, and lately in international policy communities and the social sciences. With their effortless talent to fix nitrogen into the soil, substitute animal protein, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, legumes are now recognised as forgotten stars, that could help both agriculture and the food industry become more ecological. However, legume production and consumption, albeit multiple advantages, remain still marginal in Europe for several reasons. This article adopts an interpretative policy framework to address the legume paradox, that is our legume-dependent agri-food systems relying on imports and simultaneously maintaining deficient production and consumption of legumes. We reviewed the state of the art of legume-based food systems in Hungary by analysing conceptual frameworks and data from exploratory mixed-method research. In a case study research, we analysed the root causes of this state-of-the-art through mapping the understanding of challenges and potentialities of legume value chains in Hungary by critical stakeholders. Our primary research question is what is at play behind and how Hungarian stakeholders make meaning of this paradox. We also explore how the current trends could still open pathways for more legumes in production and consumption. Drawing on insights from the literature and stakeholder interviews in Hungary, we show an extremely locked-in agri-food system. Our results indicate that especially small scale producers face difficulties to tackle with shallow yield stability of legumes. Their struggle is further aggravated by the dumping of cheap import of plant-based protein food and feed and inorganic nitrogen fertilisers, virtually absent small-scale processing, consumers' unawareness of legumes' benefits and preoccupation with their gut discomfort and food services' unwillingness to experiment with tasty plant-based protein food. We suggest several future research topics and pathways to promote more sustainable legume-based food systems. In conclusion, we argue that any transition towards legume-based food and feed systems would initially require the mutual engagement of multiple stakeholders in the value chains, strong policy support orchestrated by public institutions.

“We Prefer Local but Consume Imported”: Results from a Qualitative Study of Dairy Consumers in Senegal

Senegal’s dairy sector is faced with relatively cheap imports mainly from Europe. Besides price, other factors such as product characteristics may possibly drive consumer decisions. Therefore, this study is carried out using focus group discussions to gain an understanding of Senegalese consumers’ perceptions and preferences toward local, domestic, and imported dairy products. Results show that consumers strongly prefer local dairy products because they perceive them as natural and healthy, nevertheless, they are motivated to purchase domestically processed and imported products based on attributes such as availability, accessibility, diversity, longer shelf life in addition to lower prices. Also, in spite of the strong preference for local products, consumers are in doubt regarding their safety. The findings point to the need for developing the entire dairy value chain of Senegal, however, policies formulated to achieve this course should not ignore the negative environmental effects of dairy intensification.

A Qualitative Analysis of the Commercial Broiler System, and the Links to Consumers' Nutrition and Health, and to Environmental Sustainability: A South African Case Study.

Food systems face growing challenges to meet targets of Zero Hunger (SDG 2), and South Africa is no exception given its triple burden of malnutrition, foodborne disease outbreaks, and threats of climate change to food production. Broiler meat is South Africa's most affordable meat option, supporting household food and nutrition security. Although considered healthier and less environmentally harmful than ruminant meat, it is not without food safety risks and environmental impacts. This research aimed to present the foremost commercial broiler system narratives in South Africa, around targets of SDG 2, and to discuss key considerations for policymakers. Twenty-nine key informants and stakeholders, purposively selected to cover a wide range of opinions, participated in semi-structured interviews. Transcripts underwent a qualitative framework analysis. Results showed a highly efficient system, dominated by a small number of interlinked large-scale actors, vulnerable to competition from cheaper imports, yet pressurized to maintain high food safety and environmental impact standards, with a price-sensitive consumer base. Existing policies lack integration and enforcement capacity, and are undermined by siloed government departments, and mistrust and power struggles between public and private sectors. We propose removal of silo walls, and trust building through participatory policy development, with collaborative and transformative public-private partnerships that are designed to build capacity to deliver sustainable solutions.

Assessing Livestock Sector Development of India in the Era of Global Trade Distortions

In the WTO regime, surging imports have not only affected farm incomes but also employment in many developing countries. Consequent upon cheap imports and absence of adequate protection measures, safeguarding income and livelihood of poor farmers have emerged issues that need to be addressed by policy makers. As rightly pointed out, the developing world have suddenly become the children of a lesser god and they are the neo-poor. Further, though producer milk prices in India stand significantly lower than US and Western Europe, dairy product prices are relatively higher than international market prices owing to domestic processing inefficiencies in India. An earlier study assessed the impact of GATT on dairy products and projected the world dairy product prices to rise by about 2.3 per cent in real terms by the year 2002. The study categorically emphasized on the fact that domestic product prices would remain higher than world market prices despite expected surge in world market prices. This necessitates improvement in production and processing efficiency of livestock sector in India to make it competitive with imports. India is already price competitive in the world market and when subsidies from competitive producers like USA and EU countries are removed, the situation will make India more price competitive. In case India is not able to capture the world market in the event of removal of subsidies from the modern bloc countries, the other competitors like Australia and New Zealand would capture this market and enter in a big way to flood markets with their dairy products, making us loosing our competitiveness and a great opportunity in the new trade regime.

TINJAUAN HUKUM ISLAM TERHADAP KEWAJIBAN PENGGUNAAN PRODUK LOKAL BAGI INSTANSI PEMERINTAH (Studi Inpres. No. 2/2009 Tentang Peningkatan Penggunaan Produk Dalam Negeri (P3DN)

<p>President No instructions. 2 / 2009 About Improving Use of Domestic Products (P3DN) was born on February 9, 2009. This dilatarr back on the number of imported products flooding into the local market that triggered a global crisis. In addition, people’s purchasing power is still relatively low stock contributed to beauty product market is relatively cheap imports. In the instructions the President No. 2 <em>I </em>2009 on Better Use of Domestic Products (P3DN) and the Islamic concept of this requires government agencies to consume local products. This calls for the author’s attention to research on instruction Presidential No. 2 <em>I </em>2009 on Better Use of Domestic Products (P3DN), the extent to which if the instructions are analyzed by the President of Islamic law in the case of an obligation for government agencies to consume local products. This study was designed to use different types of literature research (library research) is by way of an inventory and classify the application of literature instruction Presidential No. 2 / 2009 on Better Use of Domestic Products (P3DN) and scripture al-Quran and Islamic principles that are relevant to this discussion. Liabilities use of local products is part of the instructions the President No. 2 <em>I </em>2009 on Better Use of Domestic Products (P3DN). In analyzing the data, the author qualitative research methods. Namely President No. analyze instructions. 2 / 2009 on Better Use of Domestic Products (P3DN) with consumption in the Islamic theory in order to obtain the expected results. With this qualitative research methods to produce the conclusion that the provisions of Presidential Decree No. instructions. 2 / 2009 on Better Use of Domestic Products (P3DN) according to Islam is a deprivation of voting rights for citizen consumption activities, which contrary to the principles of Islam mu’amalah namely <em>‘an-Taradhin</em> (compliance).</p>

Why are the pepper prices declining? An analysis of changing production and trade scenario in India

During the 1950s, India was the major player in the pepper market. Recently India has dropped to 4th position in production and exports. The price per kilogram of pepper in Cochin market reduced from ` 687 to ` 383 between 2014-15 and 2018-19. This manuscript attempts to study the reasons for the decline in India’s share in world pepper market and the recent fall in prices. The secondary data from the Food and Agriculture Organization, World Bank - World Integrated Trade Solutions, Reserve Bank of India and Spices Board of India were used for analysis. Transitional probability matrix was deployed to analyse the change in the direction of trade, relative comparative advantage and competitive index was used to study India’s market power in the international market. There has been a change in the direction of trade since 1999-2000. The results revealed a four per cent decline in area under pepper during 2000-2018, and now Indian pepper market has become import oriented with a CAGR in imports of 13 per cent during 1981 to 2000 and four per cent during 2001 to 2016. A similar trend was observed in production and exports as it got reduced from 25 per cent and 20 per cent in 1960s to ten per cent and five per cent respectively, in 2016. Increased supply in the international market, decreased production, cheaper imports and illegal imports have pulled down the domestic prices sharply in recent years. From 1995, workers’ wages have increased by around 10 per cent, and with decreasing prices, the Indian pepper industry looks grim. Appropriate policies to safeguard Indian farmers’ interest, such as export promotions, increasing productivity, delivering reasonable prices and incentives for processors would instil confidence in the farming community and the industry as a whole.

The geopolitics of renewables: New board, new game

This policy perspective sums up the main input of four members of the Research Panel for IRENA's Global Commission on the Geopolitics of the Energy Transformation. The geographic and technical characteristics of renewable energy systems are fundamentally different from those of coal, oil, and natural gas. This has implications for interstate energy relations and will require early attention if states are to exploit opportunities and address challenges. We point to six clusters of renewables' geopolitical implications that will manifest themselves over different time horizons. Overall, a generally positive disruption is foreseen, but also one that raises new energy security challenges. Moreover, while renewables will eventually render energy relations more horizontal and polycentric, achieving a smooth transition will not be easy. Renewables alter arenas of energy interaction, transforming markets and shifting trade partners, and reshape patterns of cooperation and conflict among countries. One possible outcome is a world of continental-sized grid communities made up of prosumer countries that continuously strategize between secure domestic production and cheap imports. Political action is required to manage, inter alia, industrial competition, stranded assets, availability of electricity and storage capacity, critical materials, and rivalry over ownership of key infrastructure assets.

Economic Growth in Nepal: Macroeconomic Determinants, Trends and Cross-Country Evidences

Using time series data of the last twenty-seven years (1990 to 2016), this study tries to go in-depth regarding the relationship between macroeconomic variables and its impact on economic growth of Nepal. Further, this study also compares the economic growth of Nepal with six Asian countries such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The study is based on secondary data which are extracted from a legitimate source of World Bank. The dependent variable of this study is Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth (annual%). To observe the GDP growth, some independent variables like exchange rate, export of goods and services, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) net flow, Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF), import of goods and services and inflation are chosen. Based on the variables, statistical tools such as multiple linear regression, Karl Pearson's correlation, and trend analysis are run. As per the result, exchange rate, GFCF, and import have a significant impact on the economic growth of Nepal while export, FDI, and inflation do not have a significant impact. Further, the cross-country evidence shows that Bangladesh and India have a significant positive GDP growth trend, while Bhutan and Sri Lanka have a positive GDP growth trend but do not have a significant growth. Also, China, Nepal, and Pakistan do not have a significant growth and their growth trend is negative. Based on the results and analysis it is suggested that a strong exchange rate leads low cost of production with cheap imports and also helps to control inflation due to low prices of foreign goods and services. In this context, the policymaker should initiate to make tight policies against the reduction of inflation in the country.

Aegean Enigma: The Rise and Fall of Vineyards during Antiquity

This paper argues that the rise and fall of north and central Aegean wine exportations was caused by economic factors, such as changes in wine supply. It demonstrates that these wines disappeared from southern Gaul and central Tyrrhenian Italy when these areas started to locally produce their own wine. At the same time, north and central Aegean wines were also ousted from the Black Sea region by both local products and cheaper imports from the southern Aegean. This shows that supply and demand governed commercial activities during the Classical and Hellenistic periods, which provides new evidence regarding the nature of the ancient Greek economy.

Utilisation of coarse glass powder as pozzolanic cement—A mix design investigation

Cement production is a highly energy-intensive and environmentally polluting process, however, despite the detrimental effects, the production rates are increasing annually to meet the ever-rising demand. Hence, it is imperative to look out for materials that can be used in place of cement for promoting green construction and sustainability. On the other hand, glass, post-consumption, is dumped in landfills instead of recycling due to factors such as high recycling cost, cheap imports and lack of awareness to name a few. Since glass is a non-biodegradable material, the practice of dumping waste glass in the landfills is environmentally unsustainable. Recently it has been revealed that glass at particular fineness exhibits pozzolanic characteristics.The focus of this study is to investigate the pozzolanic attribute of a coarse glass powder (≤150 µm) used as a cement replacement; the substitution levels employed were 15% and 30% by weight of cement. In addition to the basic compressive strength testing, durability tests such as drying shrinkage, resistance to chloride ion penetration and heat of hydration were evaluated. The test results indicate that 30% is the ideal replacement level, providing a strength activity index (SAI) of 117%, a 32% higher resistance to chloride ion permeability and a 24% reduction in heat from hydration.