Charged Particle Equilibrium Research Articles

How Sensitive Is the Upper Gastrointestinal Tract to 90Y Radioembolization? A Histologic and Dosimetric Analysis in a Porcine Model.

Six female pigs underwent transfemoral angiography and infusion of 90Y-resin microspheres into arteries supplying part of the gastric wall. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy was performed after 4 wk to assess interim gastrointestinal health. Animals were monitored for side effects for 9 wk after 90Y infusion, after which they were euthanized and their upper gastrointestinal tracts were excised for analysis. Histologic sections were used to map microsphere location, and a microdosimetric evaluation was performed to determine the absorbed-dose profile within the gastrointestinal wall. 90Y radioembolization dosages from 46.3 to 105.1 MBq were infused, resulting in average absorbed doses of between 35.5 and 91.9 Gy to the gastric wall. No animal exhibited any signs of pain or gastrointestinal distress through the duration of the study. Excised tissue showed 1-2 small (<3.0 cm2) healed or healing superficial gastric lesions in 5 of 6 animals. Histologic analysis demonstrated that lesion location was superficial to areas of abnormally high microsphere deposition. An analysis of microsphere deposition patterns within the gastrointestinal wall indicated a high preference for submucosal deposition. Dosimetric evaluation at the luminal mucosa performed on the basis of microscopic microsphere distribution confirmed that 90Y dosimetry techniques conventionally used in hepatic dosimetry provide a first-order estimate of absorbed dose. The upper gastrointestinal tract may be less sensitive to 90Y radioembolization than previously thought. Lack of charged-particle equilibrium at the luminal mucosa may contribute to decreased toxicity of 90Y radioembolization compared with external-beam radiation therapy in gastrointestinal tissue. Clinical examples of injury from 90Y nontarget embolization have likely resulted from relatively large 90Y activities being deposited in small tissue volumes, resulting in absorbed doses in excess of 100 Gy.

Investigation of electric field distribution on FAC-IR-300 ionization chamber

One of the important parameters for establishing charge particle equilibrium (CPE) conditions of free-air ionization chamber is an electric field distribution. In this paper, electric field distribution inside the ionization chamber was investigated by finite element method. For this purpose, the effects of adding guard plate and guard strips on the electric field distribution in the ionization chamber were studied. it is necessary to apply a lead box around the ionization chamber body to avoid of scattered radiation effects on the ionization chamber operation, but the lead box changes the electric field distribution. In the following, the effect of lead box on the electric field distribution was studied. Finally, electric field distribution factor (kfield) was calculated by the simulation. The results of the simulation showed that presence of the guard plate and guard strips, and applying a suitable potential to lead box, a convergence of kfield to 1 was achieved.

TU‐H‐CAMPUS‐TeP2‐04: Measurement of Stereotactic Output Factors with DNA Double‐Strand Breaks

Purpose:Radiotherapy treatment is specified by radiation dose prescriptions, but biological DNA damage actually controls treatment effectiveness. It is impractical to directly measure dose in the clinic, so we measure quantities, such as collected charge, and calculate the relationship to dose. At small fields, such as those in stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS), charged‐particle equilibrium (CPE) breaks down and the accuracy of the measurement for delivered dose decreases. By measuring DNA double‐strand breaks (DSB) directly, we believe treatment accuracy could improve by providing a more meaningful measurement.Methods:A DNA dosimeter, consisting of magnetic streptavidin beads attached to 4 kilobase pair DNA strands labeled with biotin and fluorescein amidite (FAM) on opposing ends, was suspended in phosphate‐buffered saline (PBS). Twenty µL samples were placed in plastic micro‐capillary tubes inside a water tank setup and irradiated with 10 cm, 3 cm, 1.25 cm, 0.75 cm, and 0.5 cm radiation field sizes, where the three smallest sizes were cones. After irradiation, the dosimeters were mechanically separated into beads (intact DNA) and supernatant (broken DNA/FAM) using a magnet. The fluorescence was read and the probability of DSB was calculated. This was used to calculate the output factor for an SRS beam and compared to that measured using a diode detector.Results:The output factors relative to a 10 cm field were 0.89±0.07, 0.76±0.08, 0.59±0.04, and 0.78±0.12 for the field sizes of 3 cm, 1.25 cm, 0.75 cm, and 0.5 cm, respectively. Some of the diode measurements do not fall within these uncertainties.Conclusion:This was the first attempt to measure output factors in a water tank with the DNA dosimeter. Although differences compared to the diode were observed, the uncertainty analysis ignored systematic errors. For future work, we will repeat this experiment to quantify and correct systematic errors, such as those caused by positional alignment and sample contamination.This work was funded in part by CPRIT (RP140105).

SU‐F‐T‐216: Evaluating Dosimetry Accuracy of a Treatment Planning System On Small Proton Fields

Purpose:This study is aiming to identify the smallest field size for which a treatment planning system (TPS) can accurately calculate the relative dose distribution. The finding would be used as a guideline to choose the smallest proton field for clinical treatment.Methods:Mevion S250™ double scattering proton delivery system and Eclipse™ TPS (Varian) with pencil beam convolution (PBC) dose algorithm were used in this study. Square sized fields of 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, and 10 cm were planned on a cubical water phantom with iso‐center placed at 10 cm depth. All beams used the same proton beam option: range 15 cm and modulation 10 cm. Dose in water was calculated without any compensator. Gafchromic™ EBT3 film and diode detectors were used to measure the central axis dose distribution and lateral dose profiles at 5 cm, 10 cm, and 14 cm depth.Results:The preliminary film measurement shows good agreement between Eclipse calculated lateral dose profiles for all tested field sizes. The differences on full width half maximum were ≤ 1 mm while the differences on the penumbras were between 1 mm and 2 mm between Eclipse and film. For the depth dose, Eclipse results matched well with film measurements for field sizes down to 2 cm2. With smaller field size of 1 cm2, Eclipse was able to predict the decreasing of SOBP due to the lack of lateral charged particle equilibrium in depth. However, it did not match the film measurement. Diode measurement results will be available at the time of presentation.Conclusion:The PBC dose algorithm in Eclipse can accurately calculate relative dose distribution in double scattered proton system for field size down to 2 cm2.

SU‐F‐T‐71: A Practical Method for Evaluation of Electron Virtual Source Position

Purpose:Since electrons are easily scattered, the virtual source position for electrons is expected to locate below the x‐ray target of Medical Linacs. However, the effective SSD method yields the electron virtual position above the x‐ray target for some applicators for some energy in Siemens Linacs. In this study, we propose to use IC Profiler (Sun Nuclear) for evaluating the electron virtual source position for the standard electron applicators for various electron energies.Methods:The profile measurements for various nominal source‐to‐detector distances (SDDs) of 100–115 cm were carried out for electron beam energies of 6–18 MeV. Two methods were used: one was to use a 0.125 cc ion chamber (PTW, Type 31010) with buildup mounted in a PTW water tank without water filled; and the other was to use IC Profiler with a buildup to achieve charge particle equilibrium. The full width at half‐maximum (FWHM) method was used to determine the field sizes for the measured profiles. Backprojecting (by a straight line) the distance between the 50% points on the beam profiles for the various SDDs, yielded the virtual source position for each applicator.Results:The profiles were obtained and the field sizes were determined by FWHM. The virtual source positions were determined through backprojection of profiles for applicators (5, 10, 15, 20, 25). For instance, they were 96.415 cm (IC Profiler) vs 95.844 cm (scanning ion chamber) for 9 MeV electrons with 10×10 cm applicator and 97.160 cm vs 97.161 cm for 12 MeV electrons with 10×10 cm applicator. The differences in the virtual source positions between IC profiler and scanning ion chamber were within 1.5%.Conclusion:IC Profiler provides a practical method for determining the electron virtual source position and its results are consistent with those obtained by profiles of scanning ion chamber with buildup.

Monte Carlo Simulation Study of a Differential Calorimeter Measuring the Nuclear Heating in Material Testing Reactors

The nuclear heating measurements in Material Testing Reactors (MTRs) are crucial for the study of nuclear materials and fuels under irradiation. The reference measurements of this nuclear heating are especially performed by a differential calorimeter including a graphite sample material. Then these measurements are used for other materials, other geometries, or other experimental conditions in order to predict the nuclear heating and thermal conditions induced in the irradiation devices. This paper will present new simulations with MCNP Monte-Carlo transport code to determine the gamma heating profile inside the calorimeter. The whole complex geometry of the sensor has been considered. We use as an input source in the model, the photon spectra calculated in various positions of CARMEN-1 irradiation program in OSIRIS reactor. After a description of the differential calorimeter device, the MCNP modeling used for the calculations of radial profile of nuclear heating inside the calorimeter elements will be introduced. The obtained results of different simulations will be detailed and discussed in this paper. The charged particle equilibrium inside the calorimeter elements will be studied. Then we will focus on parametric studies of the various components of the calorimeter. The influence of source type will be also took into account. Moreover the influence of the material used for the sample will be described.

Rapid MCNP simulation of DNA double strand break (DSB) relative biological effectiveness (RBE) for photons, neutrons, and light ions

To account for particle interactions in the extracellular (physical) environment, information from the cell-level Monte Carlo damage simulation (MCDS) for DNA double strand break (DSB) induction has been integrated into the general purpose Monte Carlo N-particle (MCNP) radiation transport code system. The effort to integrate these models is motivated by the need for a computationally efficient model to accurately predict particle relative biological effectiveness (RBE) in cell cultures and in vivo. To illustrate the approach and highlight the impact of the larger scale physical environment (e.g. establishing charged particle equilibrium), we examined the RBE for DSB induction (RBEDSB) of x-rays, 137Cs γ-rays, neutrons and light ions relative to γ-rays from 60Co in monolayer cell cultures at various depths in water. Under normoxic conditions, we found that 137Cs γ-rays are about 1.7% more effective at creating DSB than γ-rays from 60Co (RBEDSB = 1.017) whereas 60–250 kV x-rays are 1.1 to 1.25 times more efficient at creating DSB than 60Co. Under anoxic conditions, kV x-rays may have an RBEDSB up to 1.51 times as large as 60Co γ-rays. Fission neutrons passing through monolayer cell cultures have an RBEDSB that ranges from 2.6 to 3.0 in normoxic cells, but may be as large as 9.93 for anoxic cells. For proton pencil beams, Monte Carlo simulations suggest an RBEDSB of about 1.2 at the tip of the Bragg peak and up to 1.6 a few mm beyond the Bragg peak. Bragg peak RBEDSB increases with decreasing oxygen concentration, which may create opportunities to apply proton dose painting to help address tumor hypoxia. Modeling of the particle RBE for DSB induction across multiple physical and biological scales has the potential to aid in the interpretation of laboratory experiments and provide useful information to advance the safety and effectiveness of hadron therapy in the treatment of cancer.

Detector dose response in megavoltage small photon beams. I. Theoretical concepts.

To explain the reasons for significant quality correction factors in megavoltage small photon fields and clarify the underlying concepts relevant to dosimetry under such conditions. The validity of cavity theory and the requirement of charged particle equilibrium (CPE) are addressed from a theoretical point of view in the context of nonstandard beams. Perturbation effects are described into four main subeffects, explaining their nature and pointing out their relative importance in small photon fields. It is demonstrated that the failure to meet classical cavity theory requirements, such as CPE, is not the reason for significant quality correction factors. On the contrary, it is shown that the lack of CPE alone cannot explain these corrections and that what matters most, apart from volume averaging effects, is the relationship between the lack of CPE in the small field itself and the density of the detector cavity. The density perturbation effect is explained based on Fano's theorem, describing the compensating effect of two main contributions to cavity absorbed dose. Using the same approach, perturbation effects arising from the difference in atomic properties of the cavity medium and the presence of extracameral components are explained. Volume averaging effects are also discussed in detail. Quality correction factors of small megavoltage photon fields are mainly due to differences in electron density between water and the detector medium and to volume averaging over the detector cavity. Other effects, such as the presence of extracameral components and differences in atomic properties of the detection medium with respect to water, can also play an accentuated role in small photon fields compared to standard beams.

Parametric study of the energy deposition inside the calorimeter measuring the nuclear heating in Material Testing Reactors

The nuclear heating measurements in Material Testing Reactors (MTRs) are crucial for the study of nuclear materials and fuels under irradiation. The reference measurements of this nuclear heating are especially performed by a differential calorimeter including a graphite sample material and two calorimetric cells. Then these measurements are used for other experimental conditions in order to predict the nuclear heating and thermal conditions induced in the irradiation devices.This paper will present simulations with MCNP5 Monte-Carlo transport code (using ENDF/B-VI nuclear data library) to evaluate the nuclear heating inside the calorimeter during irradiation campaigns of the CARMEN-1P mock-up inside OSIRIS reactor periphery (MTR based on Saclay, France). The whole complete geometry of the sensor has been considered. The calculation method corresponds to a calculation in two steps. Consequently, we used as an input source in the model, the neutron and photon spectra calculated in various experimental locations tested during the irradiation campaign (H9, H10, H11, D9). After a description of the differential calorimeter sensor, the MCNP5 model used for the calculations of nuclear heating inside the calorimeter elements is introduced by two quantities: KERMA and energy deposition rate per mass unit. The Charged Particle Equilibrium (CPE) inside the calorimeter elements is studied. The contribution of prompt gamma and neutron is determined. A comparison between this total nuclear heating calculation and the experimental results in a graphite sample will be made. Then parametric studies performed on the influence of the various calorimeter components on the nuclear heating are presented and discussed. The studies of the influence of the nature of materials, the sensor jacket, the source type and the comparison of the results obtained for the two calorimetric cells leads to some proposals for the sensor improvement.

SU-E-T-297: Dosimetric Assessment of An Air-Filled Balloon Applicator in HDR Vaginal Cuff Brachytherapy Using the Monte Carlo Method

Purpose: As an alternative to cylindrical applicators, air inflated balloon applicators have been introduced into HDR vaginal cuff brachytherapy treatment to achieve sufficient dose to vagina mucosa as well as to spare rectum and bladder. In general, TG43 formulae based treatment planning systems do not take into account tissue inhomogeneity, and air in the balloon applicator can cause higher delivered dose to mucosa than treatment plan reported. We investigated dosimetric effect of air in balloon applicator using the Monte Carlo method. Methods: The thirteen-catheter Capri applicator with a Nucletron Ir-192 seed was modeled for various balloon diameters (2cm to 3.5cm) using the MCNP Monte Carlo code. Ir-192 seed was placed in both central and peripheral catheters to replicate real patient situations. Existence of charged particle equilibrium (CPE) with air balloon was evaluated by comparing kerma and dose at various distances (1mm to 70mm) from surface of air-filled applicator. Also mucosa dose by an air-filled applicator was compared with by a water-filled applicator to evaluate dosimetry accuracy of planning system without tissue inhomogeneity correction. Results: Beyond 1mm from air/tissue interface, the difference between kerma and dose was within 2%. CPE (or transient CPE) condition was deemed existent, and in this region no electron transport was necessary in Monte Carlo simulations. At 1mm or less, the deviation of dose from kerma became more apparent. Increase of dose to mucosa depended on diameter of air balloon. The increment of dose to mucosa was 2.5% and 4.3% on average for 2cm and 3.5cm applicators, respectively. Conclusion: After introduction of air balloon applicator, CPE fails only at the proximity of air/tissue interface. Although dose to mucosa is increased, there is no significant dosimetric difference (<5%) between air and water filled applicators. Tissue inhomogeneity correction is not necessary for air-filled applicators.

SU‐E‐T‐607: Performance Quantification of the Nine Detectors Used for Dosimetry Measurements in Advanced Radiation Therapy Treatments

Purpose:The purpose of this study was to quantify performance of the nine detectors used for dosimetry measurements in advanced radiation therapy treatments.Methods:The 6 MV beam was utilized for measurements of the field sizes with the lack of lateral charge particle equilibrium. For dose fidelity aspect, energy dependence was studied by measuring PDD and profiles at different depths. The volume effect and its influence on the measured dose profiles have been observed by measuring detector's response function. Output factor measurements with respect to change in energy spectrum have been performed and collected data has been analyzed. The linearity of the measurements with the dose delivered has been evaluated and relevant comparisons were done.Results:The measured values of the output factors with respect to change in energy spectrum indicated presence of the energy dependence. The detectors with active volume size ≤ 0.3 mm3 maximum deviation from the mean is 5.6% for the field size 0.5 × 0.5 cm2 while detectors with active volume size &gt; 0.3 mm3 have maximum deviation from the mean 7.1%. Linearity with dose at highest dose rate examined for diode detectors showed maximum deviation of 4% while ion chambers showed maximum deviation of 2.2%. Dose profiles showed energy dependence at shallow depths (surface to dmax) influenced by low energy particles with 12 % maximum deviation from the mean for 5 mm2 field size. In relation to Monte Carlo calculation, the detector's response function σ values were between (0.42±0.25) mm and (1.2±0.25) mm.Conclusion:All the detectors are appropriate for the dosimetry measurements in advanced radiation therapy treatments. The choice of the detectors has to be determined by the application and the scope of the measurements in respect to energy dependence and ability to accurately resolve dose profiles as well as to it's intrinsic characteristics.

SU‐E‐T‐225: Correction Matrix for PinPoint Ionization Chamber for Dosimetric Measurements in the Newly Released Incise™ Multileaf Collimator Shaped Small Field for CyberKnife M6™ Machine

Purpose:For small field dosimetry, such as measurements of output factors for cones or MLC‐shaped irregular small fields, ion chambers often Result in an underestimation of the dose, due to both the volume averaging effect and the lack of lateral charged particle equilibrium. This work presents a mathematical model for correction matrix for a PTW PinPoint ionization chamber for dosimetric measurements made in the newly released Incise™ Multileaf collimator fields of the CyberKnife M6™ machine.Methods:A correction matrix for a PTW 0.015cc PinPoint ionization chamber was developed by modeling its 3D dose response in twelve cone‐shaped circular fields created using the 5mm, 7.5mm, 10mm, 12.5mm, 15mm, 20mm, 25mm, 30mm, 35mm, 40mm, 50mm, 60mm cones in a CyberKnife M6™ machine. For each field size, hundreds of readings were recorded for every 2mm chamber shift in the horizontal plane. The contribution of each dose pixel to a measurement point depended on the radial distance and the angle to the chamber axis. These readings were then compared with the theoretical dose as obtained with Monte Carlo calculation. A penalized least‐square optimization algorithm was developed to generate the correction matrix. After the parameter fitting, the mathematical model was validated for MLC‐shaped irregular fields.Results:The optimization algorithm used for parameter fitting was stable and the resulted response factors were smooth in spatial domain. After correction with the mathematical model, the chamber reading matched with the calculation for all the tested fields to within 2%.Conclusion:A novel mathematical model has been developed for PinPoint chamber for dosimetric measurements in small MLC‐shaped irregular fields. The correction matrix is dependent on detector, treatment unit and the geometry of setup. The model can be applied to non‐standard composite fields and provides an access to IMRT point dose validation.

SU‐E‐T‐506: Intercomparison Study On Small Field Output Factor Measurements

PurposeIn radiotherapy, uncertainties due to small field measurements (SFM) introduce systematic errors to the treatment process and the development of new dosimeters for quality assurance programs is a challenge. In this work we analyze the behavior of seven detectors measuring output factors of 6MV photon beam.MethodsThe dosimeters employed are: a single cristal diamond detector (SCCD) developed at the University of Rome Tor Vergata, a silicon diode developed within the project MAESTRO, a IBA Razor silicon diode, A1SL and A26 Exradin ion chambers, an EBT3 Gafchromic film and the Exradin W1 Scintillator.Diamond sensitive volume is a cylinder 2.2mm in diameter and 1μm thick. MAESTRO diode is 2×2mm2 active area. Razor sensitive volume is a cylinder 0.6 mm in diameter and 0.02 mm thick. A16 and A1Sl have a collecting volume of 0,015cc and 0,053cc. The W1 is an optical fiber with an active volume of 0.002cc. All measurements were performed in a water phantom, with detector positioned at the isocenter (SSD=90cm, d=10cm), MAESTRO diode being sandwiched in solid water to obtain an equivalent experimental setup.ResultsThese measurements are challenging due to the absence of charged particle equilibrium conditions, detector size and positioning problems. They are in good agreement among each other, especially GAF, Razor, W1 and SCDD. Maximum deviations reported are related to the field 0.8×0.8cm2 for MAESTRO and chambers data with respect to EBT3: around 15% (A1SLvsEBT3), 16% (MAESTROvsEBT3). Razor and W1 show a deviation around 3% with respect to SCDD.ConclusionIn this work measurements made with a variety of detectors are compared. These study show the possibility to choose different detectors for SFM and that smaller ion chambers are still not competitive with solid state detectors. Silicon, diamond and optical fiber dosimeters show a similar behavior with minor discrepancies for the smallest field.

SU‐E‐T‐552: Monte Carlo Calculation of Correction Factors for a Free‐Air Ionization Chamber in Support of a National Air‐Kerma Standard for Electronic Brachytherapy

Purpose:To use Monte Carlo radiation transport methods to calculate correction factors for a free‐air ionization chamber in support of a national air‐kerma standard for low‐energy, miniature x‐ray sources used for electronic brachytherapy (eBx).Methods:The NIST is establishing a calibration service for well‐type ionization chambers used to characterize the strength of eBx sources prior to clinical use. The calibration approach involves establishing the well‐chamber's response to an eBx source whose air‐kerma rate at a 50 cm distance is determined through a primary measurement performed using the Lamperti free‐air ionization chamber. However, the free‐air chamber measurements of charge or current can only be related to the reference air‐kerma standard after applying several corrections, some of which are best determined via Monte Carlo simulation. To this end, a detailed geometric model of the Lamperti chamber was developed in the EGSnrc code based on the engineering drawings of the instrument. The egs_fac user code in EGSnrc was then used to calculate energy‐dependent correction factors which account for missing or undesired ionization arising from effects such as: (1) attenuation and scatter of the x‐rays in air; (2) primary electrons escaping the charge collection region; (3) lack of charged particle equilibrium; (4) atomic fluorescence and bremsstrahlung radiation.Results:Energy‐dependent correction factors were calculated assuming a monoenergetic point source with the photon energy ranging from 2 keV to 60 keV in 2 keV increments. Sufficient photon histories were simulated so that the Monte Carlo statistical uncertainty of the correction factors was less than 0.01%. The correction factors for a specific eBx source will be determined by integrating these tabulated results over its measured x‐ray spectrum.Conclusion:The correction factors calculated in this work are important for establishing a national standard for eBx which will help ensure that dose is accurately and consistently delivered to patients.

A clinical study of lung cancer dose calculation accuracy with Monte Carlo simulation

BackgroundThe accuracy of dose calculation is crucial to the quality of treatment planning and, consequently, to the dose delivered to patients undergoing radiation therapy. Current general calculation algorithms such as Pencil Beam Convolution (PBC) and Collapsed Cone Convolution (CCC) have shortcomings in regard to severe inhomogeneities, particularly in those regions where charged particle equilibrium does not hold. The aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of the PBC and CCC algorithms in lung cancer radiotherapy using Monte Carlo (MC) technology.Methods and materialsFour treatment plans were designed using Oncentra Masterplan TPS for each patient. Two intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) plans were developed using the PBC and CCC algorithms, and two three-dimensional conformal therapy (3DCRT) plans were developed using the PBC and CCC algorithms. The DICOM-RT files of the treatment plans were exported to the Monte Carlo system to recalculate. The dose distributions of GTV, PTV and ipsilateral lung calculated by the TPS and MC were compared.ResultFor 3DCRT and IMRT plans, the mean dose differences for GTV between the CCC and MC increased with decreasing of the GTV volume. For IMRT, the mean dose differences were found to be higher than that of 3DCRT. The CCC algorithm overestimated the GTV mean dose by approximately 3% for IMRT. For 3DCRT plans, when the volume of the GTV was greater than 100 cm3, the mean doses calculated by CCC and MC almost have no difference. PBC shows large deviations from the MC algorithm. For the dose to the ipsilateral lung, the CCC algorithm overestimated the dose to the entire lung, and the PBC algorithm overestimated V20 but underestimated V5; the difference in V10 was not statistically significant.ConclusionsPBC substantially overestimates the dose to the tumour, but the CCC is similar to the MC simulation. It is recommended that the treatment plans for lung cancer be developed using an advanced dose calculation algorithm other than PBC. MC can accurately calculate the dose distribution in lung cancer and can provide a notably effective tool for benchmarking the performance of other dose calculation algorithms within patients.

On the consistency of Monte Carlo track structure DNA damage simulations.

Monte Carlo track structures (MCTS) simulations have been recognized as useful tools for radiobiological modeling. However, the authors noticed several issues regarding the consistency of reported data. Therefore, in this work, they analyze the impact of various user defined parameters on simulated direct DNA damage yields. In addition, they draw attention to discrepancies in published literature in DNA strand break (SB) yields and selected methodologies. The MCTS code Geant4-DNA was used to compare radial dose profiles in a nanometer-scale region of interest (ROI) for photon sources of varying sizes and energies. Then, electron tracks of 0.28 keV-220 keV were superimposed on a geometric DNA model composed of 2.7 × 10(6) nucleosomes, and SBs were simulated according to four definitions based on energy deposits or energy transfers in DNA strand targets compared to a threshold energy ETH. The SB frequencies and complexities in nucleosomes as a function of incident electron energies were obtained. SBs were classified into higher order clusters such as single and double strand breaks (SSBs and DSBs) based on inter-SB distances and on the number of affected strands. Comparisons of different nonuniform dose distributions lacking charged particle equilibrium may lead to erroneous conclusions regarding the effect of energy on relative biological effectiveness. The energy transfer-based SB definitions give similar SB yields as the one based on energy deposit when ETH ≈ 10.79 eV, but deviate significantly for higher ETH values. Between 30 and 40 nucleosomes/Gy show at least one SB in the ROI. The number of nucleosomes that present a complex damage pattern of more than 2 SBs and the degree of complexity of the damage in these nucleosomes diminish as the incident electron energy increases. DNA damage classification into SSB and DSB is highly dependent on the definitions of these higher order structures and their implementations. The authors' show that, for the four studied models, different yields are expected by up to 54% for SSBs and by up to 32% for DSBs, as a function of the incident electrons energy and of the models being compared. MCTS simulations allow to compare direct DNA damage types and complexities induced by ionizing radiation. However, simulation results depend to a large degree on user-defined parameters, definitions, and algorithms such as: DNA model, dose distribution, SB definition, and the DNA damage clustering algorithm. These interdependencies should be well controlled during the simulations and explicitly reported when comparing results to experiments or calculations.

Development and Optimization of Nuclear Heating Measurement Techniques in Zero Power Experimental Reactors

The objective of this study is to develop nuclear heating measurement methods in Zero Power experimental reactors. This paper presents the analysis of Thermo-Luminescent Detectors (TLDs) and Optically Stimulated Luminescent Detectors (OSLDs) experiments in the MINERVE research reactors at the French Atomic Energy and Alternative Energies Commission center in Cadarache. The experimental sources of uncertainties on the dose have been reduced by using the optimum conditions of charged particle equilibrium (CPE) of the calibration step and reactor measurement for each detector types; by improving the process of the TLDs/OSLDs reading and calibration processes. The interpretation of these measurements needs to take into account several correction factors related to both the environment of calibration step and the type of detectors used. Similarly, the correction due to the neutrons contributions to the total dose integrated by the detectors is evaluated with Monte Carlo calculation methods. These calculations are based on MCNP simulations of neutron-gamma and gamma-electron transport coupled particles using ENDF/B-VI nuclear data library. TLDs and OSLDs are positioned inside aluminum or hafnium pillboxes. Comparisons between calculated and measured integral gamma-ray absorbed doses by TLDs in these new experiments are carried out in the MINERVE reactor in the surrounding aluminum material. They show that calculations slightly overestimate the measurements by about 8%. By using OSLDs, the calculation slightly overestimates the measurement by about 6%.

Conception and realization of a parallel-plate free-air ionization chamber for the absolute dosimetry of an ultrasoft X-ray beam

We report the design of a millimeter-sized parallel plate free-air ionization chamber (IC) aimed at determining the absolute air kerma rate of an ultra-soft X-ray beam (E = 1.5 keV). The size of the IC was determined so that the measurement volume satisfies the condition of charged-particle equilibrium. The correction factors necessary to properly measure the absolute kerma using the IC have been established. Particular attention was given to the determination of the effective mean energy for the 1.5 keV photons using the PENELOPE code. Other correction factors were determined by means of computer simulation (COMSOL™ and FLUKA). Measurements of air kerma rates under specific operating parameters of the lab-bench X-ray source have been performed at various distances from that source and compared to Monte Carlo calculations. We show that the developed ionization chamber makes it possible to determine accurate photon fluence rates in routine work and will constitute substantial time-savings for future radiobiological experiments based on the use of ultra-soft X-rays.

Sci-Fri AM: Mountain - 01: Validation of a new formulism and the related correction factors on output factor determination for small photon fields

Small field dosimetry measurements including output factors are difficult due to lack of charged-particle equilibrium, occlusion of the radiation source, the finite size of detectors, and non-water equivalence of detector components. With available detectors significant variations could be measured that will lead to incorrect delivered dose to patients. IAEA/AAPM have provided a framework and formulation to correct the detector response in small photon fields. Monte Carlo derived correction factors for some commonly used small field detectors are now available, however validation has not been performed prior to this study. An Exradin A16 chamber, EDGE detector and SFD detector were used to perform the output factor measurement for a series of conical fields (5–30mm) on a Varian iX linear accelerator. Discrepancies up to 20%, 10% and 6% were observed for 5, 7.5 and 10 mm cones between the initial output factors measured by the EDGE detector and the A16 ion chamber, while the discrepancies for the conical fields larger than 10 mm were less than 4%. After the application of the correction, the output factors agree well with each other to within 1%. Caution is needed when determining the output factors for small photon fields, especially for fields 10 mm in diameter or smaller. More than one type of detector should be used, each with proper corrections applied to the measurement results. It is concluded that with the application of correction factors to appropriately chosen detectors, output can be measured accurately for small fields.

Development and application of a dose verification tool using a small field model for TomoTherapy

Helical TomoTherapy® is a radiation delivery technique that uses the superposition of many small fields to precisely deliver the prescribed dose to the patient. This work presents a dose verification tool that can be used as part of a quality assurance program for a tomotherapy system. This tool is based on a small field model that takes into account the two main effects that influence the dose distribution in small fields: the extended shape of the radiation source and the loss of lateral charged particle equilibrium (CPE) within the field. The dose verification tool was implemented for simple beam configurations and used to study the influence of temporal beam parameter variations on the delivered dose. After comparing measured and calculated output factors (OFs) and dose profiles for different field configurations, it was found that they agree well to within the globally-defined gamma acceptance criteria of 2%/2mm. The study demonstrated that none of the studied systematic and random variations applied resulted in failed gamma scores using gamma acceptance criteria of 3%/3mm. The developed model implemented in the verification tool allows to evaluate the performance of devices applying narrow photon beams in the treatment delivery and, in particular, to evaluate the delivery performance of a tomotherapy unit.