Charge Collection Time Research Articles

Методика определения времени сбора заряда и среднего заряда в импульсе ионизационной камеры деления

Методика определения времени сбора заряда и среднего заряда в импульсе ионизационной камеры деления

The method for determining the charge collection time and the mean charge in the pulse of the ionization fission chamber

The method for determining the charge collection time and the mean charge in the pulse of the ionization fission chamber

Pulse-height loss in the signal readout circuit of compound semiconductor detectors

Compound semiconductor detectors such as CdTe, CdZnTe, HgI2 and TlBr are known to exhibit large variations in their charge collection times. This paper considers the effect of such variations on the measurement of induced charge pulses by using resistive feedback charge-sensitive preamplifiers. It is shown that, due to the finite decay-time constant of the preamplifiers, the capacitive decay during the signal readout leads to a variable deficit in the measurement of ballistic signals and a digital pulse processing method is employed to correct for it. The method is experimentally examined by using sampled pulses from a TlBr detector coupled to a charge-sensitive preamplifier with 150 μs of decay-time constant and 20 % improvement in the energy resolution of the detector at 662 keV is achieved. The implications of the capacitive decay on the correction of charge-trapping effect by using depth-sensing technique are also considered.

Measurements and modeling of charge carrier lifetime in compressed xenon

Gamma-spectrometers based on high-pressure xenon gas (HPXe) are proving themselves as a great potential alternative to the spectrometers based on high-purity germanium crystals and scintillators. The working medium for the high-resolution HPXe detectors, that is, xenon gas compressed up to pressure ∼50 bar and sometimes doped with hydrogen, methane or others gases, needs to be of very high purity. The gas purity level can be determined by direct measurements or, alternatively, its usability in gamma-spectrometers can be evaluated indirectly through the charge carrier (electron) lifetime measurements. Different approaches and specific setups have been used for the lifetime determination, most of those methods involve the measurement and analyses of individual pulses from ionizing particles registered in an ionization chamber filled with Xe. In the present paper, we report on the HPXe electron lifetime study carried out by using measurements in a cylindrical ionization chamber and the respective analytical charge transport model. Our results support the possibility of carrier lifetime determination in the cylindrical configuration. In addition, the voltage regimes for the use of the chamber in the spectroscopic mode were determined. The measurements were conducted in a two-electrode configuration for a range of pressure values (5 to 50 bar) for the Xe+0.25%H2 gas mixture of ∼6N purity. It is shown that in gases with relatively high values of the electron drift velocity and the electron lifetime, for example low-density gases, the charge collection time measurements can give significantly underestimated lifetime assessment. On the other hand, for the low drift velocity gases, they give much more accurate results. With the use of the analytical model, the electron lifetime was determined more precisely.

Tests of UFXC32k chip with CdTe pixel detector

The paper presents the performance of the UFXC32K—a hybrid pixel detector readout chip working with CdTe detectors. The UFXC32K has a pixel pitch of 75 μm and can cope with both input signal polarities. This functionality allows operating with widely used silicon sensors collecting holes and CdTe sensors collecting electrons. This article describes the chip focusing on solving the issues connected to high-Z sensor material, namely high leakage currents, slow charge collection time and thick material resulting in increased charge-sharring effects. The measurements were conducted with higher X-ray energies including 17.4 keV from molybdenum. Conclusions drawn inside the paper show the UFXC32K's usability for CdTe sensors in high X-ray energy applications.

Heavy Ion and Laser Microbeam Induced Current Transients in SiGe Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor**Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant Nos 61274106 and 61574171.

Silicon-germanium (SiGe) hetero-junction bipolar transistor current transients induced by pulse laser and heavy iron are measured using a real-time digital oscilloscope. These transients induced by pulse laser and heavy iron exhibit the same waveform and charge collection time except for the amplitude of peak current. Different laser energies and voltage biases under heavy ion irradiation also have impact on current transient, whereas the waveform remains unchanged. The position-correlated current transients suggest that the nature of the current transient is controlled by the behavior of the C/S junction.

Characterization of an NTD Double-Sided Silicon Strip Detector Employing a Pulsed Proton Microbeam

Monoenergetic pulsed proton beams at energies of 1 and 3 MeV per proton have been employed to characterize a segmented double-sided silicon strip detector. The detector is manufactured from a neutron transmutation doped silicon wafer and features a bulk resistivity of $2300~\Omega \cdot \text {cm}$ . Signals from both P-side and N-side strips have been digitized at 14 b, 100 MS/s. The beam was focused either in the middle of one strip or on the gap in between two strips. Energy resolution, charge collection time, and interstrip effects (charge sharing, charge losses, and inverted polarity pulses) have been investigated at different bias voltages and for particles entering either from the junction side or from the ohmic side.

Insight into Charge Separation in WO3/BiVO4 Heterojunction for Solar Water Splitting.

Recently, the WO3/BiVO4 heterojunction has shown promising photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting activity based on its charge transfer and light absorption capability, and notable enhancement of the photocurrent has been achieved via morphological modification of WO3. We developed a graft copolymer-assisted protocol for the synthesis of WO3 mesoporous thin films on a transparent conducting electrode, wherein the particle size, particle shape, and thickness of the WO3 layer were controlled by tuning the interactions in the polymer/sol-gel hybrid. The PEC performance of the WO3 mesoporous photoanodes with various morphologies and the individual heterojunctions with BiVO4 (WO3/BiVO4) were characterized by measuring the photocurrents in the absence/presence of hole scavengers using light absorption spectroscopy and intensity-modulated photocurrent spectroscopy. The morphology of the WO3 photoanode directly influenced the charge separation efficiency within the WO3 layer and concomitant charge collection efficiency in the WO3/BiVO4 heterojunction, showing the smaller sized nanosphere WO3 layer showed higher values than did the plate-like or rod-like one. Notably, we observed that photocurrent density of WO3/BiVO4 was not dependent on the thickness of WO3 film or its charge collection time, implying slow charge flow from BiVO4 to WO3 can be a crucial issue in determining the photocurrent, rather than the charge separation within the nanosphere WO3 layer.

Transient current induced in thin film diamonds by swift heavy ions

Single crystal diamond is a suitable material for the next generation particle detectors because of the superior electrical properties and the high radiation tolerance. In order to investigate charge transport properties of diamond particle detectors, transient currents generated in diamonds by single swift heavy ions (26MeV O5+ and 45MeV Si7+) are investigated. Two dimensional maps of transient currents by single ion hits are also measured. In the case of 50μm-thick diamond, both the signal height and the collected charge are reduced by the subsequent ion hits and the charge collection time is extended. These results are thought to be attributable to the polarization effect in diamond and it appears only when the transient current is dominated by hole current. In the case of 6μm-thick diamond membrane, an “island” structure is found in the 2D map of transient currents. Signals in the islands shows different applied bias dependence from signals in other regions, indicating different crystal and/or metal contact quality. Simulation study of transient currents based on the Shockley-Ramo theorem clarifies that accumulation of space charges changes distribution of electric field in diamond and causes the polarization effect.

3D Simulation and Modeling of Ultra-fast 3D Silicon Detectors

3D detectors with very small electrode spacing can provide ultra-fast detection due to their extremely small charge collection time. Since the detector full depletion voltage and charge collection time are independent to the detector thickness, ultra-fast 3D detectors can be made relatively thick (or not too thin, ~200 μm) to ensure a large signal. The results of the 3D simulations and modeling of 3D silicon detectors with very small electrode spacing and relatively large thickness will be shown in this paper. The column spacing LP is in the range of 5 μm to 10 μm. At a bias voltage of only a few volts, the electric field in the detector can be large enough to ensure the carrier saturation drift velocity in most volume of the detector, and the detector charge collection time there can be as short as 10’s of ps. In this paper, we will analysis the simulated electrical characteristics of this detector structure through systematic 3D simulations using the Silvaco’s TCAD tool. Profiles of detector electric potential and electric field will be presented. We will investigate the region of low electric field (the “slow region”) in the detector. We will also exam whether the detector reach the breakdown condition at operation voltages suggested in this work.

Experimental study of bias dependence of pulsed laser-induced single-event transient in SiGe HBT

This work presents a comprehensive investigation of single-event transient (SET) in SiGe HBT induced by pulsed laser irradiation at different bias conditions. The impacts of collector voltage VCC and base voltage VB on SET are compared and discussed. Experimental results show that SET in SiGe HBT highly depends on the applied bias conditions during irradiation. The underlying physical mechanisms are analyzed in detail. It is found that the variation of collector transient current approximately satisfies an ideal exponential discharge law. The additional discharge path plays a significant role in collector charge collection and discharge time constant once the transistors arrive at the reverse-active mode.

Recombination in liquid-filled ionization chambers beyond the Boag limit.

The high mass density and low mobilities of charge carriers can cause important recombination in liquid-filled ionization chambers (LICs). Saturation correction methods have been proposed for LICs. Correction methods for pulsed irradiation are based on Boag equation. However, Boag equation assumes that the charge ionized by one pulse is fully collected before the arrival of the next pulse. This condition does not hold in many clinical beams where the pulse repetition period may be shorter than the charge collection time, causing overlapping between charge carriers ionized by different pulses, and Boag equation is not applicable there. In this work, the authors present an experimental and numerical characterization of collection efficiencies in LICs beyond the Boag limit, with overlapping between charge carriers ionized by different pulses. The authors have studied recombination in a LIC array for different dose-per-pulse, pulse repetition frequency, and polarization voltage values. Measurements were performed in a Truebeam Linac using FF and FFF modalities. Dose-per-pulse and pulse repetition frequency have been obtained by monitoring the target current with an oscilloscope. Experimental collection efficiencies have been obtained by using a combination of the two-dose-rate method and ratios to the readout of a reference chamber (CC13, IBA). The authors have also used numerical simulation to complement the experimental data. The authors have found that overlap significantly increases recombination in LICs, as expected. However, the functional dependence of collection efficiencies on the dose-per-pulse does not change (a linear dependence has been observed in the near-saturation region for different degrees of overlapping, the same dependence observed in the nonoverlapping scenario). On the other hand, the dependence of collection efficiencies on the polarization voltage changes in the overlapping scenario and does not follow that of Boag equation, the reason being that changing the polarization voltage also affects the charge collection time, thus changing the amount of overlapping. These results have important consequences for saturation correction methods for LICs. On one hand, the two-dose-rate method, which relies on the functional dependence of the collection efficiencies on dose-per-pulse, can also be used in the overlapping situation, provided that the two measurements needed to feed the method are performed at the same pulse repetition frequency (monitor unit rate). This result opens the door to computing collection efficiencies in LICs in many clinical setups where charge overlap in the LIC exists. On the other hand, correction methods based on the voltage-dependence of Boag equation like the three-voltage method or the modified two-voltage method will not work in the overlapping scenario due to the different functional dependence of collection efficiencies on the polarization voltage.

A study of the coordinate gas-filled detectors based on the Micromegas and Micromegas + GEM/TGEM technologies for the muon tracking system of the CBM experiment

Prototypes of the gas-filled detectors produced on the basis of the Micromegas technology, as well as in combination with the Micromegas + GEM/TGEM structures in the multistage gas amplification circuit have been investigated with the aim of selecting variants for tracking detectors of the muon system designed for operating at high counting rates in the Compressed Baryonic Matter (CBM) experiment. Two- and three-component Ar- and He-based mixtures have been tested as the working gas. Their key characteristics are presented. The gas amplification factors are measured for various high-voltage modes, and the charge collection times determining the response speed of the tested detectors are estimated.

Depleted Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (DMAPS) implemented in LF-150 nm CMOS technology

We present the recent development of Depleted Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (DMAPS), implemented with an LFoundry (LF) 150 nm CMOS process. MAPS detectors based on an epi-layer have been matured in recent years and have attractive features in terms of reducing material budget and handling cost compared to conventional hybrid pixel detectors. However, the obtained signal is relatively small (∼1000 e−) due to the thin epi-layer, and charge collection time is relatively slow, e.g., in the order of 100 ns, because charges are mainly collected by diffusion. Modern commercial CMOS technology, however, offers advanced process options to overcome such difficulties and enable truly monolithic devices as an alternative to hybrid pixel sensors and charge coupled devices. Unlike in the case of the standard MAPS technologies with epi-layers, the LF process provides a high-resistivity substrate that enables large signal and fast charge collection by drift in a ∼50 μm thick depleted layer. Since this process also enables the use of deep n- and p-wells to isolate the collection electrode from the thin active device layer, PMOS and NMOS transistors are available for the readout electronics in each pixel cell. In order to evaluate the sensor and transistor characteristics, several collection electrodes variants and readout architectures have been implemented. In this report, we focus on its design aspect of the LF-DMAPS prototype chip.

A study of the coordinate gas-filled detectors based on the GEM and TGEM technologies for the muon tracking system of the CBM experiment

Prototypes of the gas-filled detectors based on the GEM and TGEM technologies have been studied in the multistage gas amplification circuit with the aim of selecting variants for tracking detectors of the muon system capable of operating at high counting rates in the CBM experiment. Two- and three-component mixtures based on Ar and He are used as the working gas. Their key characteristics are presented. The gas amplification factors are measured for various high-voltage modes. The charge collection times determining the response speed of the tested detectors are estimated.

Interplay of nanoscale domain purity and size on charge transport and recombination dynamics in polymer solar cells

Charge transport and bimolecular recombination dynamics were correlated with nanomorphology in polymer solar cells. The morphology of poly(diketopyrrolopyrrole-terthiophene) (PDPP3T) and phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PC60BM) blend films was modified using different solvent additives namely 1-chloronaphthalene (CN), 1,8-diiodooctane (DIO) and 1,8-octanedithiol (ODT) and their role on steady state and transient optoelectronic properties was investigated. The energy filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM) images showed that additives (e.g. CN and DIO) improved the domain purity which leads to significantly higher short circuit current densities (Jsc). However when the cells were processed with the ODT additive, the fill factor (FF) and open circuit voltage (Voc) decreased dramatically. Films processed with the ODT additive showed a smaller domain size but were more connected compared to films processed using CN and DIO additives. Transient photocurrent analysis indicates faster charge collection in the case of CN and DIO processed solar cells and the slowest charge collection in ODT processed solar cells. Interestingly devices processed with the ODT additive also showed the longest charge carrier recombination lifetime and lowest bimolecular recombination coefficient. This is attributed to the smaller donor domains that are connected with each other to provide a more interconnected and efficient charge transport matrix but longer pathways in ODT films. Such a matrix helped the charge to escape from the donor-acceptor interfaces and thus reduces the bimolecular recombination, while the longer pathway increases the charge collection time. Further insight is provided into the selection of processing conditions to achieve an ideal active layer morphology consisting of domains with higher polymer purity and optimal size that lead to higher Jsc and FF.

A High-Sensitivity Low-Power CMOS Sensor for a Future Neutron Personal Dosimeter

Despite a continuously increasing demand, neutron electronic personal dosimeters (EPDs) are still far from being completely established. A high sensitivity, low power consumption CMOS sensor for a future neutron personal dosimeter has been implemented in a 0.35 $\mu$ m CMOS technology. The 2.56 $\,\times\,$ 2.56 mm $^{2}$ sensing part is a micro-diode system of very low capacitance, implemented on the same substrate than the readout electronics. The excess electrons generated by an impinging particle are collected by the micro-diodes through thermal diffusion. The charge collection time and efficiency are the crucial points of a CMOS detector. We performed 3-D device simulations, using the commercially available Synopsys-SENTAURUS package, to address the detailed charge collection process. A charge sensitive amplifier (CSA) and a shaper are employed in the front-end readout. In this paper, the first electrical tests and $\alpha$ -measurements are presented.

Digital pulse processing for planar TlBr detectors, optimized for ballistic deficit and charge-trapping effect

The energy resolution of thallium bromide (TlBr) detectors is significantly limited by charge-trapping effect and pulse ballistic deficit, caused by the slow charge collection time. A digital pulse processing algorithm has been developed aiming to compensate for charge-trapping effect, while minimizing pulse ballistic deficit. The algorithm is examined using a 1mm thick TlBr detector and an excellent energy resolution of 3.37% at 662keV is achieved at room temperature. The pulse processing algorithms are presented in recursive form, suitable for real-time implementations.

A novel simulation method to evaluate the collection performance of a monolithic active pixel sensor

A novel simulation method is presented in this paper to evaluate the collection performance of monolithic active pixel sensor (MAPS) devices for minimum ionizing particle tracking. A simplified 3D matrix pixel structure is built using the computer aided design software Sentaurus. The virtual device is then divided into hundreds of parts and an independent customized X photon model is involved in each part to simulate the conditions under 55Fe radiation. After data processing and analysis, charge collection efficiency, collection time and diffusion conditions can be estimated in detail. In order to verify the reliability of the method, comparisons are made between the simulations and experiments. Although there are some defects, it can be concluded that the proposed idea is a feasible method for the evaluation of the MAPS collection performance.

Research Activities in Fission Chamber Modeling in Support of the Nuclear Energy Industry

Fission chambers are widely used in the nuclear industry. As an example, they play a major role in the control of any fission reactor and are thus regarded as a key component for ensuring their safety. They are also employed in the material testing reactors for monitoring irradiations. We have recently started a research program, the objective of which is to improve the performance of those neutron detectors in terms of lifetime, calibration, and online diagnosis. In this paper, we present several studies carried out in order to model the signal delivered by a fission chamber. First, the simulation of the deposit evolution allowed us to select the most appropriate fissile material for a given spectrum and fluence. Second, we studied the impact of the bias voltage and filling gas characteristics on the charge collection time. Finally, the simulation of a pulse signal prior to amplification showed how it is important to have a satisfactory knowledge of the energy for creating ion pairs to accurately assess the signal in current or Campbelling mode.