Charcoal Producers Research Articles

OPTIMIZING CHARCOAL PRODUCTION: A COMPARISON OF THREE WOOD SPECIES AND METHODS

For sustainable forestry management and environmental protection, it is crucial to compare three wood types and processes in order to optimise charcoal production. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the viability of using diverse waste materials and carbonization techniques to produce wood charcoal. The upcountry wet zone and low-country dry zone regions of Sri Lanka provided the samples, which were each repeated ten times and came in three different sample sizes. To make charcoal, these samples were put through the barrel and pit processes. The results showed that the barrel method produced 28% charcoal instead of the 21% produced by the pit method, demonstrating its higher efficiency and cost-effectiveness. This improvement was ascribed to the barrel's enhanced ability to regulate airflow and temperature during pyrolysis. The study emphasizes the use of wood off-cuts and the barrel method to increase efficiency, save costs, and improve charcoal quality. It provides helpful advice for small charcoal producers.

“Occupational exposure to charcoal smoke and dust, a major risk factor for COPD: a multiregional cross-sectional study in the Democratic Republic of Congo”

Occupational exposure to charcoal smoke and dust is a threat to workers respiratory system. What is the prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in charcoal workers as compared to farmers in rural areas of Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)? This cross-sectional, comparative, and multi-site study was performed in the charcoal-producing provinces of South-Western DRC. We randomly included charcoal workers and compared them to farmers (18 to 70 years old). Air quality indexes, anthropometric, physical activity, sociodemographic characteristics, and related medical events data were recorded. A Lung function questionnaire was used to assess respiratory symptoms (RS) and spirometry was performed. COPD was defined as the presence of RS for more than 3 months with a FEV1/FVC ratio below the lower limit of normal. The prevalence of COPD was calculated, and logistic regression was used to identify COPD-associated factors. We included 485 subjects between August 2020 and July 2021. Charcoal Producers (CP, n = 229) were compared with farmers (n = 118), and charcoal saleswomen (CS, n = 72) were compared to vegetable saleswomen (VS, n = 66). Respective groups were similar in age, job seniority, height, and weight. The air was more polluted at charcoal workplaces. The prevalence of COPD was higher in CP than in farmers (39.7% vs 14.4%; P < 0.0001), and in CS compared to VS (40.3% vs 13.6%; P < 0.0001). Being a charcoal worker was independently associated with COPD in the CP and farmers group: adjusted OR, 3.54 (95% CI, 1.94-6.46), and, in the saleswomen group: 7.85 (95% CI, 2.85-21.5), where it was also independently associated with young age: 0.85 (0.80-0.93) and monthly income: 0.88 (0.83-0.96). In rural areas of DRC, producing or selling charcoal is associated with a higher risk of COPD.

Forest Clearance and Fragmentation for Charcoal Production: The Case of Bimbia Bonadikombo Forest, South West Region, Cameroon

The exploitation activities of man on natural resources have hardly been sustainable. This study examined the implication of charcoal production on the Bimbia Bonadikombo forest and it’s environ. The study employed both direct field observation and questionnaire administration for data gathering. Questionnaires were administered to charcoal producers and persons involved in charcoal related activities. Persons were selected using snowball technique. A total of 42 copies of questionnaires were administered to charcoal producers and related activities. Tree species used for charcoal production were noted and identified. The questionnaire was divided into five sections:(i), socio-demographic characteristics of charcoal producers, (ii), methods of charcoal production and species selected (iii), aspects influencing charcoal production and the implication on the ecosystem, (iv), seasonal trends and challenges faced (v) mitigation strategies used). Data collected were organized in Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the analyses. Pearson (ρ) correlation association was used for the relationship between variables of production and the demand of charcoal. The result revealed that, majority of the respondents, 78.57%, were males while females were least 21.43%. Majority of the respondents (54.76%) were between the ages of 31-46 while the least with ages &gt; 47. Lophira alata 14 (35.71%) was the tree species ranked 1st while Irvingia gabonensis1 (2.38%) was the least and ranked 8th. The main aspect that influenced production was revenue generated 14 (33.33%) while weak institutions 2(4.76%) and crises situations 2(2(4.76%) were the least. Deforestation 12(28.57%) and habitats destruction 8(10.04%) were reported as the main effects caused by charcoal production. Production and the demand of charcoal variables showed a positive association (0.153±.361). The management strategies employed were: only matured trees were used for charcoal production, permanent charcoal pit kiln are dug out of forest canopy and only few tree species are used for charcoal production. For mitigation purposes used are: domestication, protecting wild charcoal trees in their farms and nurseries establishment. This study recommends that charcoal is a major source of energy and alternative source of energy when others failed or insufficient. Therefore, this source of energy can be enhanced to be more eco friendly and environmentally sustainable.

Kiln-Furnace System: Validation of a Technology for Producing Charcoal with Less Environmental Impact in Brazil

Brazil is the world’s largest producer of charcoal. Therefore, there is need for improvement in the gravimetric yield of conversion and the reduction of gas emissions, including greenhouse gases (GHGs), released during carbonization. The objective was to apply the methodology of Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) to evaluate the emission of GHG, mainly CO2 and CH4. The charcoal production kiln-furnace system used was composed of 4 kilns with a capacity of ~6 t of wood, each. The MRV cluster of coal gravimetric yield and gas burners were used to determine the gravimetric yield and burner efficiency and thus evaluate the emission of GHGs generated in the carbonization system. The carbonization was performed in an isolated way producing, in total, 3.34 t of charcoal, with an average gravimetric yield of 25.82%. The MRV methodology was effective for evaluating the GHG emissions. The wood burner reduced by 50% the methane burning and provided a reduction of 0.392 tCO2 eq (23.91%). The humidity of wood and high precipitation were the main limiting factors in this research, and responsible for the decrease in the gravimetric yield. The kiln-furnace system was effective for a sustainable production with the use of non-continuous carbonization gas burners.

Quantification and Determinants of Carbonization Yield in the Rural Zone of Lubumbashi, DR Congo: Implications for Sustainable Charcoal Production

Although charcoal production is a source of income, it is often associated with deforestation due to the felling of trees in rural areas. In this study, we quantified the yield of carbonization in the rural area of Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo), and identified its determinants. By analyzing 20 kilns of professional producers in different villages, we found that these charcoal producers build large kilns, which contained an average of 46.9 ± 21.5 m3 of wood from 19 species of Miombo woodland trees, with a predominance of Julbernardia paniculata (Benth.) Troupin, alongside Brachystegia microphylla Harms and B. spiciformis Benth. The average carbonization yield was 10.2%, varying from village to village due to parameters such as kiln size, quantity of wood used, kiln coverage time, wind exposure, substrate type, and tree species. It was noted that the moisture content and dimensions of the wood did not significantly correlate with the quantity of charcoal harvested per kiln. Yield improvement should, therefore, take these parameters into account to enable charcoal producers to increase their income while adopting sustainable production practices.

Economic sustainability for developing a less polluting eucalyptus-charcoal productive system in emerging markets

Charcoal plays a relevant role in developing countries, with potential to contribute to the energy needs as a cheaper and carbon-friendly alternative. In Brazil, eucalyptus-charcoal has gained attention as an input for metal-steel industries, mostly supplied by small and medium forest producers. Those commonly use rudimentary charcoal-kilns, characterized by higher greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, reduced productivity and economically unsustainable impacted by their reduced financial management. In order to fulfill this gap, a simplified financial planning model and an economic analysis of a less polluting charcoal productive system, called kilns-furnace system, were performed, also comparing to traditional charcoal-kilns. A differentiated cost of capital pricing model was also proposed, adjusted to bioenergy projects in emerging markets. Results showed that kilns-furnace system presented the best financial indicators, with greater free cash flow capacity, shorter reimbursement period, reduced charcoal production cost, better return on invested capital and a financial resilience even under pessimistic conditions. With its risk-return ratio verified, kilns-furnace larger insertion may be an attraction for charcoal producers, with probable increased long-term economic sustainability when compared to traditional kilns. The proposed cost of capital pricing model opened a new perspective for its calculation in developing countries, and should be used by producers, companies, and government in investment decision and as a guidance for financing lines.

Determinants of charcoal production and marketing in the Mankranso forest district in the Ashanti region of Ghana

This study sought to investigate the determinants of participating in charcoal production and trade as well as explore the marketing strategies used by charcoal value chain actors and the challenges confronting the charcoal business. A multistage sampling approach was employed to sample 120 respondents in five communities in Ahafo Ano South District. Descriptive statistics, binary probit regression and qualitative approaches were used to analyze the data. The results revealed that education, household size, marital status, ethnicity, farm size, proximity to the production site and regulations on charcoal production are the significant determinant of charcoal production with diverse effects. Also, gender, education, marital status, ethnicity, the quantity of charcoal produced, cost of packaging material, FBO membership, availability of storeroom, regulation of charcoal production, and ready market are the determinants of charcoal marketing. The qualitative discussion revealed that charcoal producers and traders utilise a couple of marketing strategies. Thus, pricing strategies such as pan seasonal, pan territorial, cost plus pricing and competitive pricing are all used by the respondents. Also, charcoal is packaged into different sizes and weight which ranges from mini bag, maxi bag and jumbo bags. Again, the margin analysis indicated that retailers make more margins than the other authors in the charcoal value chain. Averagely, retailers make 28.30 per 50 kg bag when dealing directly with farmers. The most pressing challenges faced by the respondents are levies paid, the tedious nature of charcoal production and trade, limited access to credit, lack of government support, limited transport system and lack of storage facilities. It is therefore recommended that other tribes in the producing areas need to be educated on the potential fortunes in charcoal production to orient them towards engaging in the venture. Moreover, investment should be channelled towards developing charcoal markets and also improving accessibility by improving road networks and making available means of transport to the producing areas to aid market access.

WOOD-BASED MARKET IN RIO GRANDE DO NORTE BETWEEN 1999 AND 2019

The objective of this work was to analyze the firewood, charcoal and roundwood market in the state of Rio Grande do Norte (RN) in the period 1999-2019. Data provided by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) were used referring to the quantity produced, unit value (UV) and gross production value (GPV), subdivided according to Agreste, Central, East and West mesoregions in RN. These variables were simplified in the form of descriptive statistics, with the UV and GPV deflated with a base year of 1999. In addition, the exploration products, the total area explored, the type of cut and the situation regarding the plans of sustainable forest management - PMFS, were analyzed, as provided by the Northeastern Plant Information Center (Centro Nordestino de Informações Sobre Plantas, CNIP). The results generated allowed us note that the West mesoregion stood out in the production of firewood, being the second largest producer of charcoal and the only producer of roundwood logs. The highest UV per ton of coal occurred in 2016 in the Agreste and West mesoregions; in 2018, in the Central mesoregion and, in 2013, in the East. The highest UV per cubic meter of firewood occurred in 2017 for the Agreste and Central regions, and in 2019, in the East and West mesoregions, respectively. The Central mesoregion had the highest number of PMFS in the state, with most of the plans that are currently active being used for the exploitation of firewood. West mesoregion presented only two assets.

Improvements in charcoal production and the environmental implications: Potential for the invasive Prosopis juliflora in Kenya

Charcoal is a common woodfuel in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Unsustainable wood sourcing and inefficient carbonization result into negative environmental impacts. This action research aimed at building the capacity for sustainable charcoal production including `improving the traditional earth mound kiln (TEK) that is used by 99% of charcoal producers in Kenya. Small stems and branches of the invasive Prosopis juliflora were used and produced quality charcoal with 28 kJ/g which will save trees. Improved earth mound kiln (IEK) increased charcoal yield by 49% per mass of sun dried wood fed into the kiln and reduced emissions of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons by 40%, 49% and 44% respectively. Net charcoal yield by a mass of dry wood in TEK and IEK was 26.4% and 28.4% respectively. Communication and capacity development on sustainable charcoal benefit people and environment. Studies on sustainable charcoal and effects on dryland socio-ecological systems will be needed.

Assessment of human activities and its effects on forest management: a survey of charcoal producers in the Sekyere Central District of Ghana

A survey to assess the effects and sustainability of charcoal production on the local vegetation cover was conducted in the Sekyere Central District of Ashanti region from December 2017 to April 2018. The study involved the use of structured questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGDs), key informants, secondary data and field observation by reconnaissance survey. The socio-economic survey was to identify who in the district is undertaking charcoal production as an economic venture, how widespread the activity is, and the preferred tree species being harvested to produce charcoal. In the field survey, the vegetation types in the study area were identified in a reconnaissance survey as secondary forests with increasing grassland. The relative abundance of tree species which could be used for charcoal production was also identified and quantified. A 640-meter square plot was delimited and divided into 64 square plots within each of which five-meter quadrats were marked at random and presence or absence was recorded for the individual tree species. The results of the study indicated that charcoal production is widely carried out throughout the district especially in the Afram Plains portion. It is practiced by the Akan and the Sissala ethnic groups who have very little education. Female producers (8%) were less than their male counterparts. Majority (73%) of the producers was 31 and above years whiles those of 30 years and below was 27%. The study revealed that most tree species are becoming rare and are only common in the protected area (Kogyae strict natures reserve) in the district.

Social and environmental impacts of traditional charcoal production: a case study in Hau Giang province, Viet Nam

This study investigated the status, environmental health risks and assessed contaminant concentrations of waste gases and ambient air quality in traditional charcoal production kiln areas in Hau Giang province. In total, 284 charcoal producers, 160 charcoal workers and 160 neighbors were interviewed using structured questionnaires. Additionally, Carbon monoxide (CO), nitro dioxide (NO2), total suspended particles (TSP), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) from traditional kilns and ambient air samples were analyzed. The result show that the number of kilns owned by each charcoal producer was 3.13 kilns per household; of which the average volume of each kiln was 59.07­ m3 kiln-1, with a yearling charcoal yield of around 80.71 ton kiln-1. The profitability of charcoal producers was annually approximately 133 million VND per household. Charcoal workers predominantly reported suffering from eye irritation issues (41.6%) whilst adjacent neighbors frequently experienced respiratory problems (87.5%). The interviewees obviously recognized the negative impacts of charcoal production activities on community health (63.1% respondents) and local fruit farmers (79.4% respondents), yet only the minority of residents (8.11% respondents) required a change from the current charcoal-based livelihood. The CO, TSP, and SO2 in waste gas compositions all exceeded the maximum permissive levels of the Vietnamese National Standard (QCVN 19:2009/BTNMT), while the air quality surpassed the safety level of TSP and SO2 (QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT). This indicates very high risk to those who are regularly exposed to the air pollutants. The study suggested that technological solutions and responsible policies should be enforced to promote the sustainability of charcoal production and minimize the negative impacts on human health and the environment.

Analysis of Charcoal Producers Perceptions of Its Production, Forest Degradation, and Governance in Wolaita, Southern Ethiopia’s Dry Afromontane Forests

The purpose of this study was to assess charcoal producers’ perceptions of forest degradation and investigate governance in the dry Afromontane forests of Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia. It also examines the socioeconomic contribution of charcoal production to livelihood improvement and the effect of charcoal production on forest degradation and biodiversity loss. Three Kebeles (smallest administrative subunits): Galda, Sere Esho, and Mancha Gugara were purposely selected based on their potential for charcoal production. Semistructured questionnaires were used for household surveys, while checklists were provided for the key informants and focus group discussions. From the total 4,739 charcoal producer households in the selected Kebeles, 98 households were randomly selected and interviewed considering time and budget limitations. Besides, 6 key informant interviews with elders, forestry experts, and farmers and 3 focus group discussions were conducted. A simple descriptive statistical tool was used to analyze descriptive statistical data and chi-square at P &lt; 0.05 was used to describe the association of forest degradation with socioeconomic characteristics. The findings reveal that charcoal production is dominated by males (68.4%) compared to females, who were within the age range of 20‒43 years. About 59.18% did not attend any formal education and 18.37% attended elementary education. Charcoal production (32.7%) is second, following agricultural expansion (39.8%) in its negative contribution to forest degradation. The majority (76%) of charcoal producers participated in charcoal production at all times throughout the year. The chi-square result shows a significant relationship between monthly incomes, educational status, family size, and gender with charcoal production and forest degradation at ( P &lt; 0.05 ). The indigenous trees, Acacia tortilis (34%), Combretum mole (22%), and Terminalia schimperiana (16%), were the most preferred tree species used for charcoal production. Overall, charcoal production has resulted in forest degradation. Charcoal producers have used traditional earth mound kiln technology. Providing alternative energy sources, training, starting rehabilitation programs, and implementing policies and legal frameworks are needed for the sustainable utilization of the resources and to improve the livelihood of the communities.

Perception of the Impact of Fuel Wood and Charcoal Productions on the Environment: A Case Study of Toro L.G.A of Bauchi State, Nigeria

Wood biomass felling for fuel negatively impacted on the structuring and functioning of ecosystem worldwide. Consequently, increasing soil erosion, reduction in soil moisture, content, fertility, and decline vegetation cover. The study area comprised four districts: Leme, Rimi, Jama’a and Tilden Fulani in Toro LGA, Bauchi State, purposively chosen because of their high fuel wood activity. Charcoal producers were sampled, using stratified sampling methods while traditional leadership and the department of Forestry officials were purposefully sampled for their involvement in fuelwood and forest management of the area. Fifty (50) fuel wood and charcoal producers were chosen per district. A total of two hundred (200) sampled respondents and four each of the traditional leaders and forestry officials in the four districts were investigated. Apparent collapse of traditional governance system correlated with fuelwood exploitation (especially for charcoal production) and remained a threat to sustainability of forest and forest products management. Poverty was the main driver to resource destruction, as only 34% were employed.67%, 71% and 59% indicated impact on environment, temperature, and erosion due to charcoal production.Charcoal producers obtained the trees and logs for charcoal production from the natural forest and 88% of them use life trees, cutting above 40cm above the ground level. This method of harvesting from the forest inhibits replenishment commensurate with the rate of extraction. The study showed that poverty, unemployment, ignorance and lack of education have great and direct negative impact on the environment as global warming, ozone layer depletion and climate change are evident.

The urge for just transition: Evidence from understanding of wood fuel producers' livelihoods and vulnerability in the drylands of Ethiopia

Wood fuel is not only the main source of energy for both rural and urban households but also a vital means of livelihood diversification for rural households to improve livelihood capital in developing countries like Ethiopia. However, the status of wood fuel producers' livelihood capital and their vulnerability is poorly understood in the drylands of Ethiopia. The main purpose of the research is to characterize the livelihoods of firewood and charcoal producers as well as identify sources of livelihoods' vulnerability in the dryland areas of the country. These urge to transit for sustainable energy use. The study used survey data collected from 857 sampled wood fuel producer households and Focus Group Discussions. The data were analyzed descriptively using livelihood measurement indicators and livelihood vulnerability indexes (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity indicators) in the context of farming, agro-pastoralist, and pastoralist communities. Results indicated that generally financial, human, and social capital of wood fuel producers were low whereas natural and physical capital were better. Results also indicated engagement in the production of wood fuel strengthened the producers' livelihood capital and delivered other benefits such as opportunities for livelihood diversification as well as reducing vulnerability and improved livelihoods. The pastoral and agro-pastoral communities' livelihood capital sources were more vulnerable than farming communities. The study has also identified that wood fuel production was one of the major coping strategies employed by the sampled households to mitigate the effects of different shocks. Finally, the study results implied that wood fuel production is the highest priority area of intervention to improve the livelihoods of communities in the dry lands. It is also worthwhile to establish sustainable approaches for wood fuel production keeping the dry land forest and environment safe. This calls policy for a just transition toward an equitable wood fuel production system with the potential to deliver sustainable energy and rural development through the incorporation of wood fuel importance to rural livelihoods.

Sacrificing the savannah woodlands for energy and livelihoods? Charcoal production in Ghana

The energy transition in many African countries involves the shift from firewood to charcoal and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as the primary domestic energy source. In Ghana, the demand for charcoal is on the rise, leading to diverse socio-economic and ecological outcomes in the Savannah woodland. Based on data produced through interviews, focus group discussions, observation, and a survey with 200 questionnaires administered, the paper examines the dynamics of charcoal livelihoods for energy and the ecological effects in the Savana woodland of Ghana. The article shows that charcoal production is critical to meeting household energy needs, supports the livelihood of different categories of people along the value chain and transforms local economies with unequal benefit streams to different actors. However, charcoal production results in loss of vegetation and ecological resilience with different levels of culpability on large migrant producers and small survivalist indigene producers. The paper shows that vegetation loss is highest in areas where indigenous charcoal producers continue to produce after the large-scale producers migrate when they exhaust matured trees. We recommend that stakeholders rethink governance strategies toward regulating the charcoal sector, considering its critical role in meeting domestic energy needs and supporting the livelihoods of many people.

Using an unmanned aerial system to analyse environmental impacts of charcoal production on tropical savanna ecosystems in northwestern Kenya

In many regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, charcoal plays an important role as energy source but is widely perceived as a major driver of deforestation and forest degradation. This narrative, however, is mostly based on research within primary production regions. Though space-borne remote sensing applications can be useful in monitoring such large-scale production modes, environmental effects of household-level production are less easy to assess. Therefore, the present study employs an unmanned aerial system (UAS) to assess the impact of small-scale charcoal production on the vegetation density in the immediate vicinity of production sites. The UAS data was complemented by field measurements and very high-resolution WordView-2 satellite imagery. This approach revealed only small differences between charcoal production sites and reference plots which were usually evened out after 20–25-m distance to the plot centre using a concentric ring analysis. Results further show that a distinction between different land-use practices is difficult, even with the high spatial resolution provided by a UAS. Thus, more research and new approaches are needed to evaluate the role of small-scale charcoal production in deforestation and forest degradation processes against the background of other human activities. However, to exploit the full potential of UAS for monitoring environmental effects in charcoal producing areas, official regulations need to be clearer and more reliable.

Transforming the Tanzania Charcoal Sector Project and Sustainability of Community Based Forest Management in Kilosa District, Tanzania

This paper explored the impact of the Transforming Tanzania Charcoal Sector Project (TTCSP), on the sustainability of Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) in Kilosa District, using the Ihombwe CBFM as a case study. The study used a qualitative research design. A sample of 47 participants was used to collect data. Purposive and convenience sampling techniques were used to select participants. Data were collected through document reviews, in-depth interviews, focused group discussions and observation. Thematic analysis was used in data analysis. The findings showed that the project has implemented several activities such as capacity building to village institutions, supporting the village land use plan, village resources assessment, and forest harvest plans, training charcoal producers and timber processing groups on modern techniques. Moreover, the Project supported the construction and furnishing of the village office and the development of village by-laws. Furthermore, the Project has strengthened the operationalization CBFM as well as the introduction of a sustainable forest harvest management model. The Ihombwe CBFM has been formalized and made able to generate significant income from forest products such as charcoal and timber. After all these initiatives, deforestation was perceived to decrease thus, ensuring the sustainability of the community forest.

Sustainable charcoal production drive in rural communities in Ghana, West Africa

Data was gathered with semi-structured questionnaires from 492 charcoal producers in three rural communities (Adaprase, Komfourkrom, and Papaase) in the Bono East Region of Ghana. This study assesses the demographics of charcoal producers, species used for charcoal, and how producers intend to sustain the charcoal industry in terms of acquisition of wood resources/raw materials. Seven major species, namely Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea tree), Anogeissus leiocarpus (Kane), Pterocarpus erinaceus (Krayie), Erythrophleum ivorense (Potrodom), Afzelia africana (Papao), Parkia biglobosa (Sorono), and Daniella oliveri (Senya) were identified for charcoal production. Among these species, Shea tree was ranked first in exploitation and used by about 80% of the entire population of charcoal producers in the researched communities and puts the future of this species at risk if no intervention. Meanwhile, shea tree has been identified as a very high economic value in Ghana. In addition, people with various genders, educational backgrounds, and occupations were engaged in charcoal production, but most of them were male and between the ages of 15–47. Most charcoal producers intend to establish plantations to sustain the industry while others believe in natural regeneration of species. The charcoal industry serves as a major source of income for over 90% of the inhabitants in these communities and is it therefore not recommend-able to close the industry but incorporate interventions towards sustainability.

Assessment of Charcoal Production and Its Impact on Deforestation and Environment in Borgu Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria

Commercial charcoal production is gradually becoming one of the major sources of sustenance and currently plays a major role in promoting entrepreneurial development in Borgu Local Government Area of Niger State. The study was carried out to assess charcoal production and its impact on deforestation and environment in the study area. Data for the study were generated from a structured questionnaire administered to charcoal producers in the study area. Data obtained revealed that majority (83%) were male with 56% within the age class of 21-40, majority (67%) were married and about (51%) attained primary education. Majority of the producers (82%) used traditional earth mound kiln method for charcoal production and about 56% of the producers obtained their raw material from free area. Most preferred tree species for charcoal production was Prosopis africana and accounted for 61%. Loss of biodiversity ranked 1st as regards impact of charcoal production on deforestation and environment in the study area, closely followed by forest degradation and soil degradation respectively. This study will enable forestry policy makers, charcoal producers, and farmers in the study area to be better informed about the implications of charcoal production on deforestation and environment and seek innovative means and ways to combat its menace.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CHARCOAL PRODUCTION IN SOUTH GEM SUB-COUNTY, SIAYA COUNTY, KENYA

Charcoal production is a source of income to many rural dwellers in Kenya. There are, however, several social, economic and environmental cost associated with its production. This study was conducted to assess the impact of charcoal production and the level of adoption of sustainable forest management practices in the South Gem Sub-County, Siaya County, Kenya. Data were collected through questionnaire administration on 377 respondents in 6 village, key informant interviews with officials of four Government Departments, and field observations. Land use maps for years 1998, 2008 and 2018 were used to determine changes in land use in the Sub-County. Findings indicated that charcoal production was being carried out with traditional earth kilns largely by relatively young adults, 70.3% of whom were in the 20 – 39 years age, 60.6% of whom had no more than primary education, and 59% of whom were male. Some of the tree species commonly used for charcoal production had been depleted. Majority (55 %) of the respondent charcoal producers had a relatively low monthly income of Ksh. 1000-3000. Coughing was mentioned by 38% of the respondent producers as a common health challenge. Notable environmental impacts included soil erosion, loss of forest cover and biodiversity, and change in micro-climate. However, the adoption of sustainable forest practices and modern charcoal production methods had started. This trend may eventually help in ameliorating the noted negative impacts. To facilitate the adoption of modern technology, it was recommended that the charcoal producers be encouraged to form co-operative associations.