Manufacture Of Charcoal Research Articles

Charcoal-production, Air Pollutant Impacts on Ambient Environment and Associated Health Risks: A Systematic Review

Charcoal is a widely utilised fuel produced from the carbonisation of organic materials, such as wood and other biomass sources. Regrettably, airborne contaminants from traditional charcoal producing techniques can negatively impact human health and the environment. This research explore air pollutant emissions from traditional charcoal producing methods and their impacts on human health and the environment. This study utilised a qualitative synthesis methodology, incorporating case studies, archival research, and discourse analysis, to elucidate the impacts of charcoal production. The results demonstrate that the traditional charcoal production method results in substantial carbon loss from fuelwood and emits by-products of incomplete combustion, exacerbating serious health risks and degrading air quality associated with community health problems. Empirical evidence indicates that the majority of charcoal manufacturing workers lack awareness of the health risks associated with their working circumstances and the respiratory problems they face. Unsustainable environmental practices highlight the social and ecological repercussions of charcoal production. It is advisable to apply air pollution mitigation methods around charcoal kiln facilities to protect environmental and community health. The Environmental Protection Agency must actively implement effective oversight and integrated management to improve air quality and safeguard communities from air hazards. This study recommends testing high-efficiency technologies in communities capable of maintaining and assessing their effects on environmental degradation. Both governmental entities and humanitarian organisations should prioritise educational activities centred on effective land management approaches, as this study's findings suggest.

Evaluation of Sensory Characteristics of Rubber Tree (Hevea Brasiliensis) Sawdust and Leaves as Alternative Biofuels

In the face of rising fuel costs and environmental concerns, the need for alternate energy sources is growing. Charcoal, generated from animal and vegetable sources, has emerged as a viable alternative fuel. Briquetting, which compresses organic materials into compact briquettes, offers an environmentally responsible solution for waste management and energy production in the Philippines. Basilan, noted for its agricultural methods, generates a substantial amount of agricultural waste, including rubberwood sawdust (RBS) and Rubber Tree Leaves which is perfect for briquette production due to its lignocellulose content. Charcoal briquettes, made of charcoal fines and binder, are an economical, smokeless, and long-lasting fuel option which may poses sustainable solution as the conventional method of charcoal manufacture, which involves tree felling, poses ecological concerns. This exploratory experimental design study investigates the viability and possibility of utilizing biocharcoal from dried leaves of rubber trees and rubberwood sawdust (Hevea brasiliensis) as an environmentally benign and cost-effective option. This study intends to create a sustainable cooking fuel alternative to standard charcoal by reusing agricultural trash. The study aims to developed briquettes and assesses their physical characteristics such durability, efficiency, kindling time, burning time, and heating quality to three identified evaluators. Overall, the positive responses from those who were interviewed shed light on the promising potential of rubber sawdust charcoal briquettes (x̄=4.8 (liked very much)) and rubber tree leaves (x̄=4.23 (liked very much)) as a viable and environmentally friendly energy source for applications involving heating and cooking. Due to limited laboratory apparatuses, researchers recommended for a further evaluation of the developed briquettes such doing proximate analysis (e.g. measuring the moisture and ash content) established strong data to support the existing data.

Study of liquid smoke toxicity cocoa shell with different purification methods

Cocoa shell is an underutilized agricultural trash. Cocoa shells can be used to make liquid smoke and cocoa charcoal as basic materials. The charcoal made from cocoa pod husks can be used as a dye adsorbent. The study will look at the effects of different purification and filtering procedures on the toxicity of liquid smoke from cocoa husks in order to determine which purification process is best for making liquid smoke from cocoa husks that is not harmful. The results demonstrated that several procedures for purifying and filtering liquid smoke from cocoa peels were non-toxic. Cocoa shell is an underutilized waste from plantations. Cocoa shells can be used as raw materials in the manufacture of liquid smoke and cocoa charcoal. The burning of cocoa pod husks charcoal can be used as a dye adsorbent. The research intends to observe the different purification and filtering methods on the liquid smoke toxicity from cocoa husks to find out which purification method is more appropriate for liquid smoke from cocoa husks so that it is not toxic. The results showed that the purification and filtering of liquid smoke from cocoa peels using various methods were non-toxic. The best approach with the highest LD50 value is zeolite purification, which has an LD50 value of 3019.95 ppm. The activated charcoal technique, activated charcoal + zeolite method, and distillation method were then used, with LD50 values of 2,951.21 ppm, 2,398.83 ppm, and 1,412.54 ppm, respectively.

On SIR-based MCDM approach: Selecting a charcoal firm using hybrid fuzzy number on a Triple Vague structure

Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) is a widely used method across various sectors to help decision-makers assess and choose the most suitable solutions from a range of available options. This research introduces an innovative framework called the Triple Vague (TV) structure for Superiority and Inferiority Ranking (SIR) within the context of MCDM. This framework incorporates interval fuzzy numbers and hesitant fuzzy numbers, including negative interval fuzzy numbers for different vague ideas. The main goal of this research is to present an effective solution to the challenge of selecting a firm, specifically focusing on the manufacturing of charcoal from waste coconut shells. The SIR approach is employed to establish two complete rankings, and a TV value is used to articulate the assessment information. In this article, our contribution lies in the proposed Triple Vague approach, which utilizes the superiority and inferiority ranking methodology to identify the best firm for charcoal manufacturing. Further, it demonstrates through an application example involving the selection of the most suitable firm among four different options based on specified criteria for charcoal production from coconut shell waste. Also, comparative analysis has been done with other MCDM methods like TOPSIS, Grey method and PROMETHEE method. This analysis examines that the proposed structure is better than other MCDM technique. Moreover, the results highlight the framework's capability to handle the hesitation, vagueness, and like other undesirable characteristics. Hence it provides valuable insights for decision-makers to thoroughly evaluate and consider the best alternatives.

Soil and geomorphic patterns within relict charcoal hearths could represent unique ecosystem niches

Hearths used for 19th and 20th century charcoal manufacturing have been found to have unique plant communities or to produce unique growth characteristics for some species but not others. Given known differences in hearth morphology, within hearth physical and chemical differences may exist and result in unique ecologic niches. We examined soil stratigraphy across 8 relict charcoal hearths (RCH) and control soils on different landforms near a 19th century furnace complex (Greenwood Furnace, northcentral Appalachians USA). Soils were analyzed for particle size, total and trace elements, and fertility. Platform creation resulted in soils from upslope RCH positions mixed with subsurface materials on the downslope side to create a stabilized platform. The thin, uniform thickness of charcoal surface horizons (Ac) indicate that RCHs were not used more than once for charcoal manufacturing or that charcoal was always removed very efficiently. While rubification of soil or rock from high heat was seen in 6 of 8 sites sampled, it was not extensive across sampled areas of any one hearth, which indicate hearth use may not be frequent, hot enough, or spatially disparate. Soil fertility characteristics change within RCHs but also by landscape position. Downslope RCH positions are enriched in some parameters compared to control soils (total C, Mehlich 3 Mg, Ca, and Aquia Regia digestion Mn) and that enrichment often is from the surface downward. Downslope enrichment within RCH soils may have occurred from charcoal and released ions, slope erosion and accumulation, or transportation of constructed materials during RCH creation. Landscape position may accentuate or mute soil chemistry differences. Greenwood Furnace RCHs have unique patterns of chemistry, which could result in unique niches for flora and maybe fauna within RCH. Future research could more closely investigate whether hearths support unique species assemblages and how they may play a role in enhancing today's forest biodiversity.

The quality of artisanal charcoal sold for domestic use in Tucuruí municipality in the Brazilian Amazon

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to characterize and analyse the charcoal produced for domestic use in the municipality of Tucuruí, Pará, Brazil. To this end, 15 samples were strategically collected from 5 different locations, and the moisture, fixed carbon, volatile material, ash content, calorific value and relative density of the samples were analysed in the laboratory. The charcoal commercialized in the municipality had mean values of 10.8% moisture, 74.12% fixed carbon, 22.77% volatile material, 3.10% ash, an apparent density of 335 g/cm, and a calorific value of 30.15 kJ/kg. Although these values are broadly consistent with those presented in the literature for charcoal obtained from Amazonian species, the products are not recommended for the use for which they are produced. Factors such as packaging, storage and material heterogeneity should be routinely inspected during the charcoal manufacturing process and its subsequent commercialization.

Optimization of Local Potential Towards Nature And Culture-Based Tourism Village (Study on Charcoal Kitchens and Mangrove Forests in Kuala Sempang Village, Bintan Regency)

Charcoal kitchens in Kuala Sempang Village, Seri Kuala Lobam District, Bintan Regency serve as media for charcoal production. Historically, charcoal was used to fuel cooking, ironing, and other household tasks. Mangrove trees are used as a raw material in the manufacture of charcoal. Mangrove trees are the primary source of charcoal because of their high density, which makes them more durable than other trees. Economically, charcoal production can boost the economy and human welfare. On the other hand, the production of charcoal affects environmental degradation. Several locations where charcoal is produced are called “charcoal kitchens.” Charcoal kitchens in several locations are no longer manufactured, rendering them obsolete. The charcoal kitchen is unique in its shape and even represents a technological advance for its time. Therefore, it is regrettable if the structure that bears witness to past technological advancement is abandoned and fails to benefit current and future generations. This study employs a descriptive-qualitative method with a rationalistic approach. This method is based on a holistic approach, which examines a general concept through the lens of a specific object and then incorporates the findings into the general concept. According to this study, a concept for utilizing the remaining charcoal kitchen structures and protecting mangrove forests through culture and nature-based tourism villages is required. The government’s development of facilities, as well as intensive promotion, are required. Additionally, community empowerment is essential to sustainably manage the remaining charcoal kitchen structures and mangrove forests.

Quality of Microporous Activated Charcoal from Coconut Shell Waste in Industrial Scale

Due to its diverse applications in the adsorption process, the activated charcoal encourages the manufacturing technology to produce highquality products. In present study, an industrial-scale activated charcoal was prepared in activated charcoal manufacturing companies using coconut shells waste as raw material. The process of making activated charcoal begins with preparation, carbonization and activation of charcoal into activated charcoal using the addition of steam as an activator. The resulting activated charcoal products meet the quality requirements of the Indonesian National Standard (SNI). The best-activated charcoal product from PT Nui Hia Prima produces iodine adsorption reaching 876.2 mg/g with the surface area of 504.306 m2/g and a total pore volume of 0.298 cm3/g. After some treatment with steam addition, the best product resulting in iodine and methylene blue adsorption are 973.9 mg/g and 121.25 mg/g, respectively. The development of the activated charcoal products expected to adjust with a technology that is more capable of producing better quality activated charcoal.

Pemanfaatan Jerami Padi dan Arang Sekam sebagai Pupuk Organik dan Media Tanam dalam Budidaya Kedelai

<p><em><strong>Composting of Rice Straw for Organic Fertilizer and Manufacturing Rice Husk Charcoal as Planting Medium in Soybean Demonstration Plot.</strong> Agricultural waste is the residue from an agricultural business activity, which if left unch</em>ecked can have a negative impact on the environment. Agricultural waste such as rice straw can be used for organic fertilizers because it has high potassium and lignin content. The purpose of this community service activity is to increase the knowledge and skills of the community and farmers about straw processing through the composting stage as organic fertilizer and burning rice husks into husk charcoal as a planting medium in soybean cultivation. Community service was carried out from July to August 2020 in Pengkok Village, Kedawung District, Sragen Regency, namely in the Subur and Sumber Agung farmer groups. Community service activities carried out are counseling or socialization of the use of straw and husk charcoal as organic fertilizer and planting media, then proceed with demonstrations or practices for making organic fertilizers and husk charcoal which are continued with planting soybeans in polybags with the application of compost and husk charcoal that have been made. The result of this service activity is that participants or farmer groups can make organic fertilizer from straw waste and husk charcoal independently and can be applied when cultivating soybeans in polybags as well as understanding the stages of making straw compost and burning husks into husk charcoal. The conclusion from the service activities that have been carried out is the understanding of the knowledge of community service participants about the methods or stages of composting in making organic fertilizer and making husk charcoal from rice husk waste for planting media as proven by farmers being able to make organic fertilizer from rice straw which initially becomes waste that is not optimal. used as compost which is made through the composting stage and the manufacture of husk charcoal using the burning method in a funnel and then applied in the soybean demonstration plot experiment in polybags.</p>

Decrease levels of total suspended solid in tofu liquid waste using biocoagulant charcoal

A coagulant is a chemical needed by water to help settle small particles that cannot settle on their own. Meanwhile, total suspended solids (TSS) result from filter dissolved solids by gravity deposition, usually in chloride particles, and indicate the sedimentation rate. This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of bio coagulants to reduce levels of total suspended solids (TSS) in liquid tofu waste to find out which one is more effective as a bio coagulant in liquid tofu waste. This research is experimental, consisting of 2 stages: the manufacture of charcoal from bio coagulants and the measurement of total suspended solids (TSS) levels. The data collected were tabulated and then analyzed descriptively. Three types of bio coagulants used were tamarind seeds, coffee husks, and cocoa pods. The results showed that there was a decrease in the TSS value before and after coagulation was given. The highest TSS reduction was obtained from bio coagulant charcoal from cocoa pods which reached 54.28% for a coagulant dose of 2 mg/l, while for a coagulant dose of 5 mg/l it could reduce TSS by 70.71%. It means the cocoa pods waste have a potential to use as coagulant to control sedimentation in the environment.

Pemanfaatan limbah perkebunan (kayu karet) menggunakan tungku beehives modifikasi

Biomass can be used for energy production from renewable sources. Due to the social resistance to crop burning, mixtures and pellets made from or including waste materials are a good alternative. Plantation waste becomes a problem, namely reducing land which ultimately destroys the soil and the ecosystem around the land. This waste has the potential to become charcoal that supports biomass production in Indonesia with modified beehive furnaces. The carbonized rubber charcoal has a fixed carbon content of 63% with 37% of ash, volatile and water impurities. And the redemption value in this process is around 15% which has a profit margin of 200% from the purchase capital of rubber wood waste. The carbonization process with modified beehive furnaces can be a recommendation for the manufacture of charcoal from plantation waste.

High resolution reconstruction of modern charcoal production kilns: An integrated approach combining dendrochronology, micromorphology and anthracology in the French Pyrenees

Numerous charcoal kiln remains can still be found throughout the world, evidencing wood harvesting related to former industries. These remains represent effective sources and tools for studying (i) pre-industrial pressures on forest resources and (ii) past strategies related to woodland management. However, radiocarbon dating (AMS), which is the main tool to reconstruct the chronology of past charcoal manufacturing activity, doesn't provide sufficiently accurate dating, especially for the post-1650 period, due to the broad probability range of the dates resulting from wiggles in the calibration curve. In order to overcome the radiocarbon dating limitation and therefore refine the chronology of modern charcoal manufacturing, this paper proposes to apply an integrated approach combining archaeology, micromorphology, anthracology and dendrochronology. To characterise the archaeological record of a target charcoal kiln terrace from the “Forêt de Bernadouze”, located in a historical iron production valley of the Northern Pyrenees, we combined classical stratigraphic analysis with a micromorphological study. The results highlight the multiperiod nature of the terrace, i.e. a palimpsest of multiple charcoal production episodes, revealing two major phases marked by an abandonment period between them. Subsequently, we constructed a beech charcoal-ring (n = 49) chronology cross-dated with the new “Forêt de Bernadouze” reference chronology from freshly felled, living beech trees (n = 24) to obtain the annual resolution of charcoal ring formation. Based on the new reconstructed master chronology covering the 1879–2016 period, we were able to calibrate the charcoal-ring chronology for the 1881–1941 period. Consequently, we (i) dated the charcoal production activity performed on the target terrace during the 1924–1942 period and (ii) identified a shift in the rate of use of the terrace, from one-off to high-intensive use. This study also provides new insights regarding (i) the particular nature of the archaeological record and (ii) the operating and timing of past charcoal-making practices in connection with silvicultural treatments.

PRODUKTIVITAS DAN RENDEMEN CUKA KAYU DAN ARANG MANGIUM (Acacia mangium) DI KELOMPOK TANI HUTAN ALIMPUNG DESA TIWINGAN LAMA

This study aimed to analyze the productivity and yield of Mangium Wood Vinegar and Charcoal in the Forest Farmer Group Alimpung in Tiwingan Lama Village. The method used to determine productivity is to calculate the amount of raw materials and total time. The yield is measured by counting the amount of raw material and wood vinegar or charcoal produced. The results showed that the average productivity of acacia wood vinegar was 0.037 kg / hour and acacia wood charcoal was 0.230 kg / hour. The processing process produces a yield 7.500% wood vinegar and 46.089% wood charcoal. The productivity of processing mangium wood into wood vinegar and charcoal is 0.267 kg / hour and the yield is 53.589%. Waste generated from the manufacture of wood vinegar and charcoal amounted to 46.411%. Productivity and yield are influenced by tools, raw materials and workers. Keywords: Productivity; yield; wood vinegar; charcoal; mangium

The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum (GAPF) emission inventory preparation tool and its application to Côte d’Ivoire

Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) often lack the necessary tools, guidance, and capacity for compiling an emission inventory (EI) for air pollutants. A reliable EI is an important prerequisite for the identification of key emissions sources, as an input to modelling atmospheric transport and impacts of air pollutants, and the identification of appropriate mitigation policies. The publicly-available Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Emission Inventory (GAPF-EI) tool meets the need of LMICs for a user-friendly tool allowing in-country practitioners to compile their own EIs. The species covered are SO2, NOX, CO, NMVOC, CH4, NH3, PM10, PM 2.5, black carbon, organic carbon and CO2. Output from the tool can therefore support the development of integrated air quality and climate change mitigation strategies. This tool incorporates default emission factors and inventory methods conforming with internationally recognised approaches. The GAPF-EI tool enables emissions to be estimated for technologies or practices that are often of little or no relevance to developed countries, but may represent key sources in LMICs. This paper describes the GAPF-EI tool and its application to Côte d’Ivoire where emissions from traditional biomass cookstoves, vegetation fires, traditional charcoal manufacture, road transport (including dust from unpaved roads) and open burning of municipal solid waste were found to be particularly important components of the inventory. The application of the GAPF-EI approach to Côte d’Ivoire has demonstrated its utility in addressing sources of particular relevance to LMICs in addition to providing a user-friendly, transparent and flexible EI preparation tool.

Production and characterization of black charcoal from Bambusa vulgaris (Yellow Bamboo) and potentiality for advance applications

Issues of air and water pollution and necessity of health care are becoming serious problem as the inter country and global industrialization accelerates. Finding solutions and speedy addressing to these problems via sustainable management and expansion of woody and non woody forest crops, extraction, eco and health friendly products development is increasingly important. Environmentally and health friendly bamboo charcoal has greater potential and upcoming demand in the globe. Evaluation of higher carbonation temperature and characterization of charcoal properties compared to traditional carbonation temperature pave the way for modification of surface and absorbance properties of bamboo charcoal and expansion of areas applications. This paper provides a scientific research about the optimum carbonation temperature to produce charcoal from Bambusa vulgaris (yellow bamboo). The bamboo culm was carbonized at four differed temperatures ranging from 600 to 950oC. Products of charcoal were characterized by SEM micrograph analysis, modules of rupture (MOR), calorific value, density, bulk density, density determination and water absorption determination. Optimum carbonization temperature to gain maximum property enhancement of bamboo charcoal was observed around 700 and 850 oC. By changing carbonization temperature charcoal properties can be change. Removal and solidification of carbon in the flue gas during manufacturing and convert into usable foam of product development pave the way for the expansion of charcoal manufacturing industry without harmful damage to the environment.

Options for processing of aspen wood to carbon materials

.Thermochemical processing of aspen wood to produce carbon materials is of interest considering that it allows increasing the cost of its products several times and enhancing the sustainability of forest complex enterprises.Currently, the enterprises are confined to the manufacture of charcoal, although it is possible to produce other carbon materials, such as charcoal briquettes, activated carbon and oxidized coal.While processing aspen wood, it is feasible to arrange manufacturing charcoal briquettes. Increased mechanical strength and high bulk density of briquettes raises the range of economically viable transportation of manufactured products, i.e. logistics is being improved.To obtain stable quality activated carbon from aspen coal, water vapor activation is the least environmentally hazardous. For such activation implementation, we recommend using a rotary kiln equipped with a Z - shaped insert. For reasons of environmental safety, the oxidation of activated carbon is preferably carried out using hot, humid air. In this case, unlike liquid-phase oxidation, no wastewater is formed.

Pengaruh Temperatur Pirolisis terhadap Kinetik Rate dan Volume Tar pada Limbah Serbuk Kayu Mahoni

Pyrolysis is an alternative technology that is a method for obtaining hydrocarbon energy sources. This technology is a combustion technology without involving O 2 in the combustion process. The source of fuel from pyrolysis comes from renewable resources such as biomass / plants. Wood powder itself can be obtained from wood waste around us, so wood powder which is a biomass can also be used as raw material in the pyrolysis process. So far wood waste has only been used as a medium for planting mushrooms and fires. Whereas the use of wood waste in the manufacture of liquid smoke and charcoal has received attention in recent years, which can be produced by the pyrolysis method. The hypothesis of the study is that the higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic rate and volume of tar. this is because the energy given to biomass is also higher. The research method is to pyrolyze the material into the pyrolyzer machine with temperature variations, and later the reaction rate kinetic of the formed tar will be calculated. From this study we can conclude a number of things, namely: The higher the temperature of the volume of tar produced will be more numerous where the maximum volume obtained at a temperature of 500 o C is 72 ml, but at very high temperatures the tar volume decreases because a lot of gas is formed. The higher the heating temperature, the kinetic rate that occurs in the decomposition of mahogany wood will also be faster, this has been validated the accuracy of the kinetic rate that occurs by comparing the actual volume with the volume of calculation results. The higher the heating temperature, the activation energy (Ea) and the exponential factor (A) will be smaller .

Electricity generation from pyrolysis gas produced in charcoal manufacture: Technical and economic analysis

Abstract Brazilian steel industry based on charcoal is unique in the world, making Brazil the largest world charcoal producer and the only one that produces green pig iron in large scale, a low-carbon and economic option to the traditional pig iron produced from coal coke. The renewable charcoal originates from the slow pyrolysis of eucalyptus wood produced in high productivity reforestation farms thought traditional batch reactors. Unfortunately, the state-of-the-art of charcoal making in Brazil do not comprise the pyrolysis gases utilization, wasting more than 30% of wood energy decreasing air quality and producing environmental and social impacts. Therefore, in this sense, the goal of this work is to evaluate the possibility to recovery this energy to produce electricity, and issues the topics related to the use of a very lean fuel, with flammability problems, which varies its composition over time, and the lack of water to be used as cooling mean for the thermodynamic cycles in the eucalyptus farms. The gases Lower Flammability Limit (LFL) was analyzed by the Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperature (CAFT) method showing that in the first half of pyrolysis, the gases are generally under the LFL line, what could be solved by the gases pre-heating or mixing with richer fuel produced by kilns in advanced carbonization stage. Results showed an average gas Lower Heating Value (LHV) of 1323 kJ/kg. To overcome gas production instability a cluster system of 120 rectangular carbonization kilns working in synchrony was accessed through a computational tool, where it was found a minimum thermal power available of 57.5 MWth or 25.6% of initial wood energy content. Three energy conversion technologies were evaluated: the Steam Rankine Cycle (SRC), the Externally Fired Gas Turbine (EFGT) and the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). In this work, it was found that the efficiency of the SRC, EFGT and ORC conversion technologies are 24.0%, 19.3% and 23.7%, respectively. An economic analysis indicated the SRC as the most viable technology with a potential to generate 0.93 MWhel per ton of charcoal produced. Brazil has as estimated energy loss of 2.5 Mtoe (million tonne of oil equivalent) annually in the form of carbonization gases, which could be used to produce up to 5644 GWhel of electricity and reduce the Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions up to 15 Mton CO2–eq.

Characteristics of Wood Tar Produced as Byproduct from Two Types of The Kiln in The Manufacture of Oak Charcoal

This study investigated the characteristics of wood tar, produced as a byproduct during the production of charcoal using oak wood by the modified traditional kiln and mechanical steel kiln. The wood tar was analyzed with a number of techniques, including Py-GC/MS, NMR, MALDI-TOF, FT-IR, TG and DSC. The Py-GC/MS analysis indicated that modified traditional kiln generated a higher hydrocarbon ratio in the wood tar than that of mechanical steel kiln. On the other hand, mechanical steel kiln resulted in a higher proportion of phenolic and aromatic hydrocarbon components than that of modified traditional kiln. Those results were also confirmed by NMR analysis. The MALDI-TOF analysis suggested that the wood tar produced in the mechanical steel kiln had a slightly higher molecular weight than the wood tar produced in the modified traditional kiln. In addition, the FT-IR analysis showed characteristic peak of symmetrical stretching vibration of CH3 from the modified traditional kiln while characteristic peaks of the C-C and C-O stretching vibration were observed from the mechanical steel kiln. Moreover, TG and DSC analysis suggested that the mechanical steel kiln is more thermally stable than that of modified traditional kiln. Those findings clearly showed that the method of making charcoal greatly affects the properties of wood tar.

DAMAGE LEVEL AND CLAIMED VALUE ESTIMATION OF DAMAGE MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM IN BINTAN BAY, BINTAN DISTRICT

ABSTRACTMangrove ecosystem in some regions of the Bintan Bay has suffered damage due to development of human settlements, developing of land transport infrastructure, and also logging by the community. The aim of this study was to assess the level of damage, factors affecting the damage, and to calculate the estimated value of claims for damaged mangrove ecosystem in the Bintan Bay, Bintan District. The results showed that mangrove vegetation in Bintan Bay consists of 16 species. Based on the analysis of standard criteria and guidelines for mangrove destruction KEPMENLH 201, 2004, the quality of mangroves in Bintan Bay was considered in a good criteria (very dense and medium) and damaged criteria (rare). The observation of satellite images from 1990 to 2013 showed that mangrove area decreased by 501.39 hectares or 27.1%. Contributing factor due to the decrease of mangrove trees was to fuel the manufacture of charcoal, construction of infrastructures such as roads, ports of fishing boats and also the establishment of the fish pond. Based on rehabilitation application scenario for 15 years, the total area of compensated mangrove due to its damage was 1091.727 hectares with rehabilitation cost of about Rp 30.372.391.000,00. Meanwhile, for 30 years scenario rehabilitation, the total damage mangrove area that should be compensated was 1743.406 hectares. Keywords : Bintan Bay, mangrove ecosystem, estimated value damage claims