Characteristics Of System Of Systems Research Articles

A New Horizon for Healthcare Delivery: A System of Systems Perspective and Governing Proposition

AbstractThe healthcare system is grappling with inherent challenges, functioning akin to a fragmented cottage‐like industry, leading to significant cost implications and compromised care quality. This paper employs a systematic approach to scrutinize the Healthcare Delivery System (HDS) comprehensively, categorizing it as a Collaborative System of Systems (SoS), where multiple independent systems operate collectively, maintaining individual autonomy. Through a detailed examination, we identify the Collaborative SoS nature of the current healthcare system as the primary cause of its fragmentation. We address a gap in the current literature on the characteristics of SoS, focusing on the often‐overlooked aspect of dependence and exploring why constituent systems collaborate to achieve common objectives. Then, we propose a hybrid SoS model where an external governing entity at the national level assumes the authority to determine objectives and drivers for the healthcare SoS. We contend that effective SoS governance is indispensable for addressing systemic issues, providing necessary coordination, allocating resources, establishing policies, fostering sustainable change, and ensuring a well‐organized and efficient healthcare system.

Looking back and forward: A retrospective and future directions on software engineering for systems‐of‐systems

AbstractModern systems are increasingly connected and more integrated with other existing systems, giving rise to systems‐of‐systems (SoS). An SoS consists of a set of independent, heterogeneous systems that interact to provide new functionalities and accomplish global missions through emergent behavior manifested at runtime. The distinctive characteristics of SoS, when contrasted to traditional systems, pose significant research challenges within software engineering. These challenges motivate the need for a paradigm shift and the exploration of novel approaches for designing, developing, deploying, and evolving these systems. The International Workshop on Software Engineering for Systems‐of‐Systems (SESoS) series started in 2013 to fill a gap in scientific forums addressing SoS from the software engineering perspective, becoming the first venue for this purpose. This article presents a study aimed at outlining the evolution and future trajectory of software engineering for SoS based on the examination of 57 papers spanning the 11 editions of the SESoS workshop (2013–2023). The study combined scoping review and scientometric analysis methods to categorize and analyze the research contributions concerning temporal and geographic distribution, topics of interest, research methodologies employed, application domains, and research impact. Based on such a comprehensive overview, this article discusses current and future directions in software engineering for SoS.

A Delphi study to recognize and assess systems of systems vulnerabilities

System of Systems (SoS) is an emerging paradigm by which independent systems collaborate by sharing resources and processes to achieve objectives that they could not achieve on their own. In this context, a number of emergent behaviors may arise that can undermine the security of the constituent systems. We apply the Delphi method with the aims to improve our understanding of SoS security and related problems, and to investigate their possible causes and remedies. Experts on SoS expressed their opinions and reached consensus in a series of rounds by following a structured questionnaire. The results show that the experts found more consensus in disagreement than in agreement about some SoS characteristics, and on how SoS vulnerabilities could be identified and prevented. From this study we learn that more work is needed to reach a shared understanding of SoS vulnerabilities, and we leverage expert feedback to outline some future research directions.

A modeling approach for Systems-of-Systems by adapting ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010 Standard evaluated by Goal-Question-Metric

Context. Systems-of-Systems (SoS) constitute a new category of complex software systems resulting from the integration of independent heterogeneous systems. Each constituent system has its own purpose and could interact with other systems to achieve a common goal. SoS have specific characteristics, namely operational and managerial independence of constituent systems, geographic distribution, evolutionary development and emergent behaviors. Due to the complexity of SoS, their development demands special attention to their software architecture description. Objective. In this work, we aim to elaborate an approach for modeling SoS using an Architecture Description Languages (ADL) adequate with SoS' characteristics. In fact, many researches have addressed the problem of describing the software architecture of SoS. However, there is still a lack of ADL having the expressive power to describe SoS software architectures. Method. To address this problem, we proposed an approach based on the standard “ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010: Systems and software engineering- Architecture Description” to describe the software architectures of SoS. Then, we proposed improvements for this standard to be adequate with SoS characteristics. Finally, we conducted a qualitative study based on Goal-Question-Metric (GQM) with a focus group to evaluate the effectiveness of this work. Results. While applying our approach in an illustrative case study which is an SoS entitled Smart City, we modeled three viewpoints for our SoS, expressing its specific characteristics; structural viewpoint, behavioral viewpoint and requirement viewpoint. Each one of these viewpoints is illustrated via an architecture model modeled by multi-labeled graphs which represent an intuitive and formal ADL. The use of multi-labeled graphs allowed as to check the conformity of the obtained architecture models with design rules via the Graph Matching and Transformation Engine (GMTE). Conclusions. It is concluded that the proposed improvements for the standard are important to express specific characteristics of SoS. Moreover, our proposed formal ADL, entitled multi-labeled graphs, allows us to elaborate different models considering different viewpoints to describe the SoS' architecture. Finally, it is important to investigate larger SoS and to conduct a quantitative study to further evaluate the effectiveness of our approach. • Modeling System of Systems based on the standard ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010. • Improving the ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010 standard for System of Systems modeling. • System of Systems case study entitled “Smart City”. • Qualitative study based on Goal-Question-Metric (GQM).

A review and future directions of SOA-based software architecture modeling approaches for System of Systems

Software architecture is a software system’s earliest set of design decisions that are critical for the quality of the system desired by the stakeholders. The architecture makes it easier to reason about and manage change during different phases of complex software life cycle. The modeling of software architecture for System of Systems (SoS) is a challenging task because of a system’s complexity arising from an integration of heterogeneous, distributed, managerially and operationally independent systems collaborating to achieve global missions. SoS is essentially dynamic and evolutionary by design requiring suitable architectural patterns to deal with runtime volatility. Service-oriented architecture offers several architectural features to these complex systems; these include, interoperability, loose coupling, abstraction and the provision of dynamic services based on standard interfaces and protocols. There is some research work available that provides critical analysis of current software architecture modeling approaches for SoS. However, none of them outlines the important characteristics of SoS or provides detailed analysis of current service-oriented architecture modeling approaches to model those characteristics. This article addresses this research gap and provides a taxonomy of software architecture modeling approaches, comparing and contrasting them using criteria critical for realization of SoS. Additionally, research gaps are identified, and future directions are outlined for building software architecture for SoS to model and reason about architecture quality in a more efficient way in service-oriented paradigm.

ASSESSING INTEROPERABILITY REQUIREMENTS IN NETWORKED ENTERPRISES: A MODEL‐BASED SYSTEM ENGINEERING APPROACH

ABSTRACTWhen two or more systems work together, it is crucial to verify interoperability. Systems engineers should be working to continuously improve the ability to interoperate for maintaining a sustainable and efficient collaboration among the networked systems. Systems could benefit from the use of interoperability assessments for identifying their strengths and weakness as well as their compatibility with potential collaborative peer systems. However, the current assessment approaches do not explicitly define the interoperability requirements and their interdependencies. Acknowledging the different requirement dependencies supports the identification of impacts on the overall system, for example implications within a network caused by changes in the collaboration strategy or the introduction of a new information technology tool. Thus, based on model‐based systems engineering, this paper defines a networked enterprise as a system of systems (SoS) and proposes to use the SoS characteristics for identifying interoperability requirements and their dependencies. Further, we formalise and utilise inputs for an assessment tool.

Coordination of Constituent Systems for Functionalizing Systems of Systems: An Exploration

Coordinating the constituent systems of a system of systems (SoS) in operations is an important task for functionalizing the SoS. The choice of a coordinating strategy needs to consider the autonomy, belonging, and connectivity levels of constituent systems. The diversity and emergence characteristics of SoS are outcomes of coordination. This paper analyzes different strategies for coordinating constituent systems from the perspective of SoS characteristics and, therefore, derives the mechanism for choosing a coordinating strategy. Challenges are found in implementing the coordinating strategies for SoS. The paper summarizes representative challenges facing system engineers. Methods for addressing these are proposed, including the multi-stage multi-scale coordination and smart coordination of operating mode switches. An island energy system composed of both diesel engine generators and microgrids with renewable energy sources is presented in this paper as an example of SoS network. Various aspects of coordinating constituent systems in this SoS network are presented to illustrate how the choice and execution of coordinating strategies functionalize SoS.

INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

ABSTRACTThis article provides an introduction and overview of basic concepts of systems of systems (SoS). Beginning with the definition of SoS and SoS engineering, the paper describes the characteristics of SoS. It compares systems with SoS and discusses the implications for systems engineering. Finally, the paper concludes with a discussion of the challenges SoS pose for systems engineering with a description of recognized SoS ‘pain points.’

Robust Design of System of Systems Using Uncertainty Assessment Based on Lattice Point Approach: Case Study of Distributed Generation System Design in a Japanese Dormitory Town

A system of systems (SoS) is a class of complex systems that views multiple and small independent systems as part of a larger and more complex system. Because designing an SoS requires evaluation from a long-term viewpoint, it creates a large uncertainty. While researchers have proposed some robust design methods to handle the uncertainty of systems, they cannot be adopted to SoS design because of the SoS’s strong nonlinearity. This paper first discusses how difficult it is to handle uncertainty of SoS considering the SoS characteristics, and then proposes an approach of robust optimality with lattice points that is simple but plausible to sidestep the issue of nonlinearity. A case study of designing a distributed generation (DG) system, which is a typical SoS, in a Japanese dormitory town is demonstrated in order to verify the proposed approach. The results reveal that this approach helps a designer decide the appropriate amount of subsidy in terms of the robustness of DG installation.

A systems of systems perspective on the internet of things

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to extending the reach of the Internet into the physical world. The realization of IoT applications involves the integrated operation of many subsystems that retain their private function. This makes IoT application deployment and integration a Systems of Systems (SoS) problem. In this paper we collect SoS properties and characteristics from the literature in order to understand common integration problems in IoT better, for which we use two running examples. We show that in particular for safety critical systems there must be means to compute and predict integrated behavior based on specifications at interfaces. We give a general coordination architecture that supports this.

Making Smart Cities Smarter – MBSE Driven IoT

AbstractThe Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of systems (SoS) in every sense of the definition. A.P. Sage and others list five common SoS characteristics: operational independence of the individual systems, managerial independence, geographical distribution, emergent behavior and evolutionary development or independent life cycles. Typical examples include smart houses, the electric grid, complex military systems and so‐called smart cities. The future of IoT success, including technology advancements and revenue generating potential across the business spectrum, is dependent on the application of solid Systems Engineering and Model Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) principals. Without MBSE, the complexity involved in the design, development, and deployment of IoT systems would consume both system and operational providers. Absent of any industry standards, IoT systems cannot be built in a vacuum and their success will only be realized through application of modern day systems engineering processes, methods, and tools. With the potential of 28 billion “things” connected to the Internet by 2020, it's not too difficult for anyone paying attention to this emerging technology trend to envision the massive scale of social, economic, and technological changes that will need to occur to realize this prediction. Technology advancements in consumer products will continue to evolve to facilitate connection to larger and larger IoT networks. This will be the catalyst that will drive entire infrastructures changes to: Federal, State, City, and local governments; product development companies; utility and service providers; and even to consumers and their homes in order to support the growing demand for connected products. The infrastructure and management will need to be established prior to, or in conjunction with, the smart systems that support them. This paper will show a traffic management system and connected systems in a large city and how an MBSE and SoS approach will help guide development.

A system-of-systems approach to understanding urbanization – state of the art and prospect

Purpose – City is an artificial dynamic open giant complex system, whose multifunctional and interdisciplinary characteristics leads to significant complexity. While challenges arising from individual urban functions have been the focus of urban studies, major urban challenges such as traffic congestion and inefficiency of resource usages may originate from the “interface” where different urban functions interact. Previous research has revealed the potential that regarding city as a system-of-systems (SoS) may shed light on solutions to various urban challenges. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – To examine this research potential, this paper begins with an overview of challenges in urbanization and current approaches which lack systematic solutions. The idea of applying SoS approach is then inspired by existing studies on urban metabolism where city is regarded as an entire system. This idea is followed by definition and characteristics of SoS, as well as comprehensive overview of the state of the art on SoS-based solutions to urban challenges. This paper then discusses the merits and limitations of current studies on SoS for urbanization, followed by a case study which precedes research visions. Findings – The paper finds that regarding city as SoS is a potentially effective approach for urban studies. This is highlighted by original research visions on how to advance this line of research. These research visions point out a few ideas for future research. It particularly highlights the role of human and information in the establishment, management and evolution of various urban functions. Originality/value – The originality of this paper lies in the use of the conception of “SoS” to emphasize the importance of properly modeling human and information in an urban system so as to better reveal the intra-SoS mechanism.

Extending systems ergonomics thinking to accommodate the socio-technical issues of Systems of Systems

Socio-technical issues for Systems of Systems (SoS) differ in several ways from those for systems, mainly because the individual systems that are components of the SoS are usually owned by different organisations, each responsible for the optimisation and operation of its own system. Consequently, management of the SoS is about negotiation and management of the interfaces. Because of issues of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs), commercial confidence, and the like, there is seldom sufficient, timely information in circulation about the SoS. Surprises are endemic to SoS, and resilience is a fundamental requirement. This paper outlines the different characteristics of SoS compared to ordinary systems, discusses many of the socio-technical issues involved, and then outlines a generic approach to these issues, treating the SoS as a ‘wicked problem’. Endemic to this is the need for governance, which is discussed briefly. This is followed by a description of the evident gaps in knowledge about the functioning of SoS, and a listing of tool classes, the development of which would enable progress to be made more effectively. Finally, the paper discusses how the SoS approach might be the best way to entrain ICT to address global drivers, thus pointing to the importance of the SoS approach.

Policies to deal with multimodal transport emissions: a system-of-systems approach

The complex and uncertain nature of dealing with multimodal transport emissions generates a need for appropriate methodology to support informed decision making. This paper presents a system-of-systems (SoS) approach that takes into account the complexity of a policy problem stemming from the interactions of multiple actors and technological artifacts. We discuss some SoS characteristics such as actor operational and managerial independency, the hierarchical and horizontal network of interdependencies among actors and artifacts, the emergent SoS behavior, and the presence of multiple sets of solutions for achieving an SoS objective. We illustrate such characteristics via the problem of assessing the carbon emission impact of on-demand air service and automobiles. Some preliminary results are presented regarding the impact of alternative fuels on carbon emissions.

Agent‐Based Modeling the Emergent Behavior of A System‐of‐Systems

AbstractNet‐Centric Operations (NCO) is operated on a System‐of‐Systems (SoS) communication environment. Emergent behavior is one of the five SoS characteristics. Layered SoS architectures start from the top SoS‐level containing emergent behavior. Conceptual agent‐based modeling was presented to simulate the four principles of emergence. The simulations covered the condition of emergence, non‐linear behavior and coupling relationship between agents. The four principles are interrelated. The emergent behavior has impacts on traditional systems engineering process. Neural network artificial intelligence may be needed to assist the understanding of emergent behaviors for architectural model development. Agent‐based modeling needs further development and should be integrated with neural network and SysML.

System-of-Systems Engineering Management: A Review of Modern History and a Path Forward

As our knowledge of system of systems (SoS) has grown and evolved, so has our understanding of how to engineer and manage them. In systems engineering, we develop architectures and frameworks to bring meaning to this kind of uncertainty, but for SoS engineering (SoSE) we are still in search of how we can structure this understanding. In this paper, we review the SoS literature to illustrate the need to create an SoSE management framework based on the demands of constant technological progress in a complex dynamic environment. We conclude from this review that the history and evolution of defining SoS has shown that: (1) SoS can be defined by distinguishing characteristics and (2) SoS can be viewed as a network where the ldquobest practicesrdquo of network management can be applied to SoSE. We use these two theories as a foundation for our objective to create an effective SoSE management framework. To accomplish this, we utilize modified fault, configuration, accounting, performance, and security (FCAPS) network principles (SoSE management conceptual areas). Furthermore, cited distinguishing characteristics of SoS are also used to present a SoSE management framework. We conclude with a case analysis of this framework using a known and well-documented SoS (i.e., Integrated Deepwater System) to illustrate how to better understand, engineer, and manage within the domain of SoSE.