Changing Opportunity Structures Research Articles

The European Impact on State–Religion Relations in Turkey: Political Islam, Alevis and Non-Muslim Minorities

Since Turkey's application for membership of the European Union (EU) in 1987, the EU has itself been a structural component of Turkey's political transformation. The European impact intensified after Turkey was granted the status of an official candidate at the EU's Helsinki Summit in 1999. Since then, Turkey has issued a series of reform packages with the aim of starting accession negotiations, which began in October 2005. These reforms have initiated a democratic regime that is structurally different from its predecessors in terms of its definition of political community, national identity and the territorial structure of the state. Among many other aspects of the current political transformation such as the resolution of the Kurdish problem and administrative reform, this article concentrates on how the European impact, which I label Europeanisation, has influenced state–religion relations in Turkey. Europeanisation has three major mechanisms that influence actors, institutions, ideas and interests in varying ways: institutional compliance, changing opportunity structures, and the framing of domestic beliefs and expectations. The article concentrates on how these mechanisms operate in the creation of a new regulatory framework of religion in Turkey.

Trade Unions and New Member State Workers in Germany and the United Kingdom

This article compares German and British trade union responses in a European context following the European enlargements in 2004 and 2007 that are unprecedented in the history of the European Union (EU). In particular, this article examines two case studies to explore how trade unions have responded to increased migration following the enlargements. Increased migration has created a number of problems for trade unions that are examined in the case studies. The findings of the case studies are used to undertake a contextualized comparison of trade union behaviour in responding to the changing regulatory and opportunity structures that present themselves following the enlargements. Account is taken of the role that trade unions adopt within their national legal systems, as well as of the effects of the EU's policy of Europeanization on national trade unions. This article concludes by elaborating a number of recommendations based on the analysis.

Legislating Gender-based Violence in Post-conflict Africa

Much of the literature on post-conflict Africa has focused either on the backlash against women's rights or referred very generally to new openings for gender-related policy in particular countries. A closer look at developments across the continent shows that the steady demise of a significant number of major conflicts in Africa since the mid-1980s and especially after 2000 has been accompanied by a new focus on women's representation and woman-friendly legislation and policy. This article focuses on the adoption of gender-based violence legislation, which has not to date been examined cross-nationally. It argues that post-conflict countries have adopted legislation pertaining to gender-based violence at significantly higher rates than in other countries. The article shows how this is related to the legacy of conflict. The pressures to address GBV have come from 1) women's movements, 2) changing international norms and practices reflected in programmatic shifts within international bodies like the United Nations and among foreign donors, and 3) changing opportunity structures such as the holding of peace talks or rewriting of constitutions, which allowed women to push their agenda.

From Ausländer to Inlander: The Changing Faces of Citizenship in Post-Wall Germany

From its founding in 1949 through the dramatic events of 1989/90, the Federal Republic relied on a concept of "blood-based" citizenship (jus sanguinis), hoping to sustain ties between the peoples of the divided nation, as well as to protect "co-ethnic" groups scattered throughout historically defined eastern territories. Geographical reconfiguration, generational change and globalization processes have rendered Germany's insistence on an ethno-national citizenship paradigm detrimental to its own political and socio-economic interests. Ostensibly the real "losers" of unification, more than seven million "foreigners" and children of migrant descent are now set to become the long-term winners of Chancellor Merkel's pro-active measures to foster their integration and education. Making very effective use of EU initiatives on migration policy, Merkel has adopted a holistic approach to integration as a means of overcoming the FRG's looming demographic deficit and shortage of high-tech laborers. This study begins with profiles of three "migrant" generations and the changing opportunity structure each has encountered, leading to different degrees of identification with the new homeland. It then summarizes key features of the 2007 National Integration Plan, and examines factors allowing Merkel to blaze a trail through the perilous "immigration" territory all previous Chancellors had feared to tread. Despite internal opposition, Angel Merkel's pro-active efforts to redefine "what it means to be German" has, paradoxically, given the Christian Union a chance to modernize its own identity.

Rethinking Citizenship and Identity: ‘What it Means to be German’ since the Fall of the Wall

Twenty years after the Wall's collapse, East and West Germans have yet to achieve a sense of ‘inner unity’. To forge a common national identity not only among those citizens but also among Germans of migrant descent, policy-makers need to grasp the ways in which their respective identity trajectories have diverged over four decades. This article revisits western, eastern and ‘foreigner’ identities prior to 1989; it examines changing opportunity structures along three generational axes, resulting in different degrees of identification with the homeland since 1990. It then reviews efforts to redefine national belonging based on recent legislative reforms, pushing West Germans to give up their Leitkultur claims along new paths to citizenship. Finally, the article reflects on why the nation's first woman Chancellor, Angela Merkel, could successfully blaze a trail through perilous territory all previous leaders had feared to tread.

The Japanese Hikikomori Phenomenon: Acute Social Withdrawal among Young People

Although rare in the west, in Japan and in some other advanced countries on the Asian-Pacific rim, there is a popular perception that there has been a significant increase in the numbers of young people who withdraw socially for protracted periods of time (referred to by the Japanese term ‘hikikomori’). This paper describes the hikikomori phenomenon in Japan, considers evidence relating to its prevalence and examines views about the causes. I argue that the tendency to think of hikikomori as a homogeneous group characterised by psychological malaise is misleading and that withdrawal and disengagement can also be linked to changing opportunity structures. The collapse of the primary labour market for young people and the growing prevalence of a precarious secondary sector has led to a situation in which traditional and deep-rooted norms are undermined and young people forced to find new ways of navigating transitions within a highly pressured and rigid system. Under these circumstances, acute withdrawal often represents an anomic response to a situation where tradition no longer provides adequate clues to appropriate behaviour rather than as a malaise reducible to individual psychologies.

"Por nuestros derechos, ahora o nunca!" Construyendo una identidad colectiva umbandista en Argentina

The type of religious organization characteristic of Afro-American religions allows for the transformation of personal identities -achieving individual conversions that make possible their expansion- but is not particularly suited for the construction of collective identities that can make possible collective action leading toward their social legitimation. Using perspectives developed in the study of social movements, the article analyzes the example of Afro-Brazilian religions in Argentina to show how religious leaders who strive for the legitimation of their religion must develop collective action frames that can make possible the construction of collective identities. To this end, they must mobilize economic and symbolic resources internal and external to their religion and take advantage of the changing opportunity structures offered by their social environment. The difficulties in creating a collective identity are particularly detrimental when religious leaders must strive hard to counter the stigmatization they endure in the new social contexts into which their religions expand. Keywords: Religion; Umbanda; Social movements; Social Identities; Religious organizations

The Preliminary Reference Process: National Court Implementation, Changing Opportunity Structures and Litigant Desistment

Litigant desistment, i.e. voluntary litigant implementation of an ECJ ruling in a preliminary reference case that preempts the necessity for a national court decision, is a common - yet often overlooked - strategic behavior new to the study of the ECJ, national courts and the preliminary reference process. The hypotheses directed at predicting and investigating when such litigant behavior occurs are an outgrowth of the ‘implementation prejudice’ that national courts will overwhelmingly apply ECJ decisions in their rulings, which changes the opportunity structures of litigants. Understanding when litigants desist not only expands general knowledge concerning the underinvestigated implementation stage but also arguably could have important implications for our understanding of the evolution of ‘high’ court legitimacy.

The EU in the Domestic: Interreg III and the Good Friday Institutions

The focus of this article is on the role of the European programme for cross-border co-operation - Interreg - in developing and promoting cross-border co-operation in the context of the new institutions established for the implementation of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement. The elaboration and negotiation of the third Interreg programme for the Irish border area took place in the context of a fluid and at times unstable institutional environment. The analysis proceeds in five stages: an overview of the analytical framework, examination of the preferences of the European Commission concerning Interreg III, analysis of the interaction between the establishment of the new institutions and the changing opportunity structures for those wishing to influence the content and implementation of Interreg III, examination of the manner in which the Interreg programme was elaborated, and analysis of the final stages of the negotiations of the programme and the negotiations on a role for the border regions.

AGE STRATIFICATION AND CLASS FORMATION: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE SOCIAL MOBILITY OF YOUNG MEN AND WOMEN, 1971–1991

This paper examines the relationship between processes of demographic class formation, gender inequality and age stratification in England and Wales between 1971 and 1991. Existing research shows that the complex process of class restructuring which took place in these years is linked to considerable changes in the position of women, especially related to their growing numbers in professional and managerial occupations. We seek to show that changing processes of age stratification were also related to the remaking of class and gender relations in these years. Data from the Longitudinal Study (approximately 193,000 men and 203,000 women aged 23–57 in two age cohorts; 1971 and 1981), Samples of Anonymised Records (approximately 121,500 men and 126,000 women aged 23–57 in 1991), General Household Survey 1983–1992 (32,609 men and 16,191 women aged 23–57 in fulltime employment) and from the National Child Development Study, 1981 and 1991 (2205 men and 887 women aged 23 and 33, in fulltime employment) were used to examine the movement of individuals through changing opportunity structures over the twenty-year period. We found a distinct hardening of the relationship between age and class in these two decades for men, with a marked increase in social polarisation between young men and older men, but for women this relationship was very different, with young women seeing considerable evidence of an improvement in their fortunes.

Age Stratification and Class Formation: A Longitudinal Study of the Social Mobility of Young Men and Women, 1971-1991

This paper examines the relationship between processes of demographic class formation, gender inequality and age stratification in England and Wales between 1971 and 1991. Existing research shows that the complex process of class restructuring which took place in these years is linked to considerable changes in the position of women, especially related to their growing numbers in professional and managerial occupations. We seek to show that changing processes of age stratification were also related to the remaking of class and gender relations in these years. Data from the Longitudinal Study (approximately 193,000 men and 203,000 women aged 23-57 in two age cohorts; 1971 and 1981), Samples of Anonymised Records (approximately 121,500 men and 126,000 women aged 23-57 in 1991), General Household Survey 1983-1992 (32,609 men and 16,191 women aged 23-57 in fulltime employment) and from the National Child Development Study, 1981 and 1991 (2205 men and 887 women aged 23 and 33, in fulltime employment) were used to examine the movement of individuals through changing opportunity structures over the twenty-year period. We found a distinct hardening of the relationship between age and class in these two decades for men, with a marked increase in social polarisation between young men and older men, but for women this relationship was very different, with young women seeing considerable evidence of an improvement in their fortunes.

Career Patterns of Executive Women in Finance: An Optimal Matching Analysis

This article examines the objective and subjective facets of female finance‐executive careers. Optimal matching and qualitative analyses are used to show how the careers are shaped by workplace structures and by the early 1970s enforcement of women's employment rights. Changing opportunity structures in turn shaped respondents' perspectives. Many younger respondents were unaware that their mobility was partly due to the creative action of their female predecessors and took personal credit for their own rapid progress. Finally, it appears that as women have experienced more freedom in pursuing finance careers, their career trajectories have become more rigid.

Business interests in regionalist conflicts: Changing opportunity structures through European integration?

Business interests in regionalist conflicts: Changing opportunity structures through European integration?

Entrepreneurial Processes as Virtuous and Vicious Spirals in a Changing Opportunity Structure: A Paradoxical Perspective

We develop the beginnings of a grounded theory of entrepreneurship based on the idea that entrepreneurship, in terms of a changing opportunity structure–-consisting of opportunity detection, opportunity facilitation and motivation to pursue opportunity–-can be viewed through a paradoxical perspective that considers the interplay of organizational and individual capabilities as virtuous and vicious spirals across time. The virtuous spiral led toward successful change because of supportive organizational and individual capabilities across time. The vicious spiral led away from successful change because of countervailing organizational and individual capabilities. Paradoxically, however, we found that entrepreneurship developed in both types of spirals. We discuss these points based on two case studies of Finnish banks and bank managers within the fundamentally changing opportunity structure of the banking business in the late 1980s.

THE EFFECT OF ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING ON PUERTO RICAN WOMEN'S LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN THE FORMAL SECTOR

The joint effort by the U.S. government and the political elite of Puerto Rico to industrialize the island created increased demand for female labor and a decline in the number of jobs traditionally held by men. The authors examine whether women's labor force participation in the formal sector responds to improving opportunities for women, declining opportunities for men, or the household's changing opportunity structures. Specifically, they examine a woman's return to work after the birth of her first child as the initial point of conflict between productive and reproductive work. The data used in these analyses are from the 1982 Puerto Rican Fertility and Family Planning Assessment (PRFFPA), an islandwide, representative sample of never-married and ever-married women between the ages of fifteen and forty-nine. The authors estimate a series of nested logistic regression models to evaluate the influence of occupational expansion or contraction on the timing of return to work after the first birth. Their findings offer selective support for the idea that women's lives are affected primarily by the occurrence of growing labor demand for women's labor.

Territorial formation on the margin: urban anti-planning in Brooklyn

Abstract Theorists of social movements have identified a growing number of ‘new social movements’ which seek to ‘bypass the state’ in their pursuit of social power. This article proposes that one way to appreciate the changing opportunity structure for such ‘new social movements’ is to direct one's attention to changes in the degree and nature of state territorial control. It is argued that political-economic transformation is resulting in a situation in which margins are emerging: areas which are clearly within the boundaries of nation-states but in which the intensivity of state political-territorial control is limited. Social movements are gathering residual sources of social power in these supposedly ‘emptied’ margins in an effort to construct alternative forms of territorial control. Their attempts to redefine territory challenge the construction and uses of territoriality which enable capitalist uses of space. An analysis is undertaken of one particular movement from the margin—the Atlantic Terminal Urban Renewal Area (ATURA) Coalition, a grass-roots urban planning/community control movement in Brooklyn, New York City.

Another Look at the Life Cycle and Political Participation

Our understanding of the connection between life stages and participation continues to be hampered by crude classifications of the former and narrow constructions of the latter. This paper emphasizes participation as domain-specific and as being responsive to changing opportunity structures over the life span. Data from the 1968 national election study are used to demonstrate that parenthood, as one stage in the life cycle, has a trivial or debilitating impact in the domain of national politics but a highly salutary one in school politics. This pattern holds across age groups and tends to be more pronounced for women than for men, especially among the young. It is argued that the results are illustrative of more general processes governing participation over the life cycle.

A Tale of Three Cities: Blacks and Immigrants in Philadelphia: 1850-1880, 1930 and 1970

Determining whether the black experience was unique, or similar to that of earlier white immigrant groups, is central to the debate over whether blacks should be the beneficiaries of special compensatory legislation in the present. To answer this question requires interdisciplinary research that combines a comparative ethnic, an urban, and a historical perspective. Thus we observe the experience of three waves of immigrants to Philadelphia: the Irish and Germans who settled in the "Industrializing City" of the mid-to-late nineteenth century; the Italians, Poles and Russian Jews who came to the "Industrial City" at the turn of the twentieth century; and blacks who arrived in the "Post-tndustrial City" in their greatest numbers after World War II. Analysis of the city's changing opportunity structure and ecological form, and the racial discrimination encountered shows the black experience to be unique in kind and degree. Significant changes in the structures that characterized each of the "three cities" call into question our standing notion of the assimilation process.